The short-term effects of air pollution on adolescent lung function in Taiwan

A mass screening of lung function associated with air pollutants for children is limited. This study assessed the association between air pollutants exposure and the lung function of junior high school students in a mass screening program in Taipei city, Taiwan. Among 10,396 students with completed asthma screening questionnaires and anthropometric measures, 2919 students aged 12-16 received the spirometry test. Forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory flow in 1 s (FEV₁) in association with daily ambient concentrations of particulate matter with diameter of 10 μm or less (PM₁₀), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and ozone (O₃) were assessed by regression models controlling for the age, gender, height, weight, student living districts, rainfall and temperature. FVC, had a significant negative association with short-term exposure to O₃ and PM₁₀ measured on the day of spirometry testing. FVC values also were reversely associated with means of SO₂, O₃, NO₂, PM₁₀ and CO exposed 1 d earlier. An increase of 1-ppm CO was associated with the reduction in FVC for 69.8 mL (95% CI: −115, −24.4 mL) or in FEV₁ for 73.7 mL (95% CI: −118, −29.7 mL). An increase in SO₂ for 1 ppb was associated with the reductions in FVC and FEV₁ for 12.9 mL (95% CI: −20.7, −5.09 mL) and 11.7 mL (95% CI: −19.3, −4.16 mL), respectively. In conclusion, the short-term exposure to O₃ and PM₁₀ was associated with reducing FVC and FEV₁. CO and SO₂ exposure had a strong 1-d lag effect on FVC and FEV₁.     

Pulmonary Function Changes Associated with an Air Pollution Episode in January 1987

In January 1987, an air pollution episode occurred In central and western Europe. Levels of SO₂, NO₂, black smoke, sulphates and other components were elevated, with 24 hour average concentrations of SO₂ reaching a maximum of close to 300 μg/m3 In an area In the southeast of the Netherlands. Pulmonary function was measured In a group of children of 6- 12 years old at the end of the episode, and also two and three and a half weeks after the episode. A baseline lung function value was obtained about three months before the episode. Pulmonary function growth between baseline and retest dates was estimated from a simple growth model which was validated using measured pulmonary function growth data from a longitudinal study. A decline of pulmonary function (FVC, FEV₁ and PEF) from predicted baseline levels was observed, starting on the last day of the episode. Two weeks after the episode, FVC, FEV₁ PEF and MMEF were all decreased, and three and a half weeks after the episode, there was still a deficit compared to predicted baseline levels for FVC and FEV₁     

Effects of public health interventions on industrial emissions and ambient air in Cartagena, Spain

Background, aim, and scope

Ten years of public health interventions on industrial emissions to clean air were monitored for the Mediterranean city of Cartagena. During the 1960s, a number of large chemical and non-ferrous metallurgical factories were established that significantly deteriorated the city’s air quality. By the 1970s, the average annual air concentration of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) ranged from 200 to 300 µg/m³ (standard conditions units). In 1979, the Spanish government implemented an industrial intervention plan to improve the performance of factories and industrial air pollution surveillance. Unplanned urban development led to residential housing being located adjacent to three major factories. Factory A produced lead, factory B processed zinc from ore concentrates, and factory C produced sulfuric acid and phosphates. This, in combination with the particular abrupt topography and frequent atmospheric thermal inversions, resulted in the worsening of air quality and heightening concern for public health. In 1990, the City Council authorized the immediate intervention at these factories to reduce or shut down production if ambient levels of SO₂ or total suspended particles (TSP) exceeded a time-emission threshold in pre-established meteorological contexts. The aim of this research was to assess the appropriateness and effectiveness of the intervention plan implemented from 1992 to 2001 to abate industrial air pollution.

Materials and methods

The maximum daily 1-h ambient air level of SO₂, NO₂, and TSP pollutants was selected from one of the three urban automatic stations, designed to monitor ambient air quality around industrial emissions sources. The day on which an intervention took place to reduce and/or interrupt industrial production by factory and pollutant was defined as a control day, and the day after an intervention as a post-control day. To assess the short-term intervention effect on air quality, an ecological time series design was applied, using regression analysis in generalized additive models, focusing on day-to-day variations of ambient air pollutants levels. Two indicators were estimated: (a) appropriateness, the ratio between mean levels of the pollutant for control days versus the other days, and (b) effectiveness, the ratio between mean levels of the pollutant for post-control days versus the other days. Ratios in regression analyses were adjusted for trend, seasonality, temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure, calendar day, and special events as well as the other pollutants.

Results

A total of 702 control days were made on the factories’ industrial production during the 10-year period. Fifteen reductions and five shutdown control days took place at factory A for ambient air SO₂. At factory B, more controls were carried out for the SO₂ pollutant in the years 1992–1993 and 1997. At factory C, the control days for SO₂ decreased from 59 reductions and 14 shutdowns to a minimum from 1995 onwards, whereas the controls on TSP were more frequent, reaching a maximum of 99 reductions and 47 shutdowns in the last year. SO₂ ambient air mean levels ranged from 456 to 699 µg/m³ among factories on reduction control days and between 624 and 1,010 µg/m³ on shutdown days. The TSP ambient air mean levels were 428 and 506 µg/m³ on reduction and shutdown days, respectively. For all types of control days and factories, a mean ratio of 104% (95% confidence interval [CI] 88 to 121) in SO₂ levels was obtained and a mean ratio of 67% (95% CI 59 to 75) in TSP levels. Post-control days at all factories showed a mean ratio of ?16% (95% CI ?7 to ?24) in SO₂ levels and a mean ratio of ?13% (95% CI ?7 to ?19) in TSP levels.

Discussion

Interventions on industrial production based on the urban SO₂ and TSP ambient air levels were justified by the high concentrations detected. The best assessment of the interventions’ effectiveness would have been to utilize the ambient air pollutant concentration readings from the entire time of the production shutdowns or reductions; however, the daily hourly maximum turned out to be a useful indicator because of meteorological factors influencing the diurnal concentration profile. A substantial number of interventions were carried out from 1 to 3 am, when vehicular traffic was minimum. On the other hand, atmospheric stability undergoes diurnal cycling in the autumn–winter period due to thermal inversion, which reaches maximum levels around daybreak. Therefore, this increases the ambient air levels and justified the interventions carried out at daybreak in spite of the traffic influence.

Conclusions

All the interventions for SO₂ and TSP were carried out when the measured ambient air levels of pollutants were exceeded, which shows the appropriateness of the intervention program. This excess was greater when intervening on SO₂ than on the TSP levels. For both ambient air levels of SO₂ and TSP, significant drops in air pollution were achieved from all three factories following activity reductions. The production shutdown controls were very effective, because they returned excess levels, higher than in the reduction controls, to everyday mean values.

Recommendations and perspectives

The Cartagena City observational system of intermittent control has proven to effectively reduce industrial emissions’ impact on ambient air quality. This experienced model approach could serve well in highly polluted industrial settings. From a public health perspective, studies are needed to assess that the industrial interventions to control air pollution were related to healthier human populations. Legislation was needed to allow the public administration to take direct actions upon the polluting industries.     

Interannual variability of transboundary sulphur flux

A study was conducted by the Atmospheric Environment Service (AES) to compute the transboundary sulphur flux between eastern Canada and the eastern United States on a monthly and annual basis for the years 1980–1983.The S fluxes were calculated using the AES Lagrangian model. SO₂ and SO₄ concentrations were computed at 16 line segment mid-points along the Canada-U.S. border from western Ontario through Quebec to the Maritimes. Sulphur fluxes were determined at 6-h intervals and summed temporally and spatially to obtain the total transboundary S flux. By using only the Canadian and only the U.S. emissions, the total S flux contributions from each country could be determined.Canadian and U.S. emissions declined from 1980 to 1983 by 20% and 11%, respectively, then increased slightly in 1983. The total annual S flux from the U.S. to Canada ranged from 1.86 Mt S (1980) to 1.61 Mt S (1983) while the flux from Canada to the U.S. ranged from 0.75 Mt S (1980) to 0.52 Mt S (1982). Fluxes between both countries were highest (lowest) in the winter (summer) because of the stronger (lighter) winds and higher (lower) SO₂ concentrations. However, SO₄ mass flux peaked in summer and early fall because of higher chemical conversion rates.Annual transboundary fluxes were observed to change by up to 20% in response to emissions changes and meteorological variability and these two influences should be considered together when assessing flux changes.     

Adaptation by Older Individuals Repeatedly Exposed to 0.45 Parts per Million Ozone for Two Hours

To test for an increased reaction to ozone (O₃) in older individuals following an initial exposure, and to test for adaptation and its duration, we exposed 10 men and 6 women (60-89 years old) in an environmental chamber to filtered air and 3 consecutive days of O₃ exposure (0.45 ppm), followed by a fourth O₃ exposure day after a two day hiatus. Subjects alternated 20-min exercise (minute ventilation = 27 L) and rest periods for 2 hours during each exposure. Subjects rated from one to five, 16 possible respiratory/exercise symptoms prior to and following the exposure. Pulmonary function tests were performed before, and during each rest period and following the exposure. Metabolic measurements were obtained during each exercise period. No significant changes in any symptom question occurred, in spite of a threefold increase in the total number of reported symptoms during O₃ exposure. Small but significant pre-to-post decrements on the first and second O₃ days in forced vital capacity (FVC—111 and 104 mL), forced expiratory volume in 1 (FEV₁—171 and 164 mL) and 3 seconds (FEV₃—185 and 172 mL) occurred without concomitant changes in any flow parameter of the forced expiratory maneuver. No differences in the group mean response in FVC, FEV₁, OR FEV₃ on the third or fourth day of O₃ exposure and the filtered air exposure were found. The observed changes were due to significant physiological changes in eight of the subjects. Unlike young subjects, no evidence of an increased pulmonary function response to a second consecutive O₃ exposure was observed. Changes in small airway response to O₃ (below 75 percent of FVC) without irritant receptor activation, would explain the observed pattern of response.     

Declining ambient air pollution and lung function improvement in Austrian children

Three thousand four hundred fifty-one Austrian elementary school children were examined (between 2 and 8 times) by spirometry by standardized methods, over a 5 yr period. The districts where they lived were grouped into those where NO₂ declined during this period (by at least 30 μg/m³ measured as half year means) and those with less or no decline in ambient NO₂. In both groups of districts, SO₂ and TSP fell by similar amounts over this period. A continuous improvement of MEF25 (maximum exspiratory flow rate at 25% vital capacity) was found in districts with declining ambient NO₂. Populations did not differ in respect of anthropometric factors, passive smoking or socioeconomic status. A birth cohort from this study population which was followed up to age 18 confirmed the improved growth of MEF25 with decline in NO₂, while the improved growth of forced vital capacity was more related to decline in SO_2. This study provides the first evidence that improvements in the outdoor air quality during the 1980s are correlated with health benefits, and suggest that adverse effects on lung function related to ambient air pollution are reversible before adulthood. Improvement of small airway functions appeared to be more dependent on reductions of NO₂ than reduction in SO₂ and TSP.     

Decline in Children’s Pulmonary Function during an Air Pollution Episode

Pulmonary function was measured in 163 primary school children before, during and after an air pollution episode. During the episode, TSP, RSP and SO₂ concentrations were each in the range of 200-250 μg/m³, whereas during the baseline measurements, they were generally below 100 μg/m³. During the episode, pulmonary functions were significantly lower by 3-5 percent compared to the baseline measurements. The decline was still observed 16 days after the episode, but not 25 days after the episode. Differences in pulmonary function technician, pulmonary function test appliance and in the prevalence of colds between baseline and follow-up measurement were not able to explain the findings. These results suggest that an air pollution episode of a few days, with 24-hour average TSP, RSP and SO₂ concentrations in the range of 200-250 μg/m³, was associated with a decrease in pulmonary function of primary school children.     

Analysis of Atmospheric Conditions during Air Pollution Episodes in Ankara,Turkey

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a detailed analysis of the meteorological conditions that are associated with strong air pollution episodes in Ankara, Turkey. Based on climatological and air quality data [SO₂ and TSP (total suspended par-ticulates)] obtained for the winter months during 19891994, the analysis showed that the presence of weak atmospheric pressure gradients and warm air advection were the most important factors leading to high SO₂ and TSP concentrations. In addition, the onset of the high air pollution episodes was generally associated with a trend toward negative vorticity at the 850-hPa level.     

The oxidation rate and residence time of sulphur dioxide in the arctic atmosphere

The Arctic air mass contains gaseous and particulate compounds that originate mainly from fossil fuel combustion at mid-latitudes and especially from the Eurasian sector. Observations of the temporal variation of SO₂, SO₄²⁻ and V concentrations in the North American and Norwegian Arctic are presented. At Igloolik, Canada, 3–7-day average SO₂ concentrations ranged from 2.3 to 4.3 μg m⁻³ in February to much lower values in spring and fall. The most probable cause of similar strong variations in the ratio of SO₄⁻² to V observed throughout the North American Arctic is a seasonally varying SO₂ oxidation rate. Interpreted in the light of a Lagrangian transport model, observations indicate that the mean SO₂-oxidation rate between Eurasian sources and the North American Arctic is 0.1 % h⁻¹ in early December, 0.04 % h⁻¹ in late February, and 0.1–0.2% h⁻¹ in early April. The residence time of SO₂, controlled not only by chemical conversion to sulphate but also by dry deposition, is 14–20 days in late fall, 16–32 days at mid-winter and 10–19 days in April. The estimated rates of SO₂ oxidation cannot be explained by photochemical oxidation mechanisms at least when reactive hydrocarbons are ignored.     

Ambient levels of particulate organic matter in New York City in winter and summer

Samples of suspended particulate matter were collected during two summer and two winter sampling campaigns. Non-polar, moderately polar and polar fractions of particulate organic matter (POM) were separated by 8h sequential Soxhlet extractions with cyclobexane, dichloromethane and acetone, respectively. Atmospheric concentrations of total POM averaged 13.0 μgm⁻³ for the two summer periods and 16.0 μgm⁻³ for the two winter periods. Extractable organic matter in respirable (D₅₀≤3.5μm aerodynamic diameter) suspended particulate matter was 81% of the TSP organics during January–February 1978, but only 54% of TSP organics in August 1978.Evaluation of dispersion normalized aerosol concentrations of POM indicated that space heating contributed approximately 75% of the total POM in New York City in February 1977 and 51% in January–February 1978. The strong association of POM with the “oil-burning” factor obtained by factor analysis performed on the data was also indicative of a substantial contribution from this source. Use of high-sulfur (1.5–15 %) fuel oil in New York City during the 1976–1977 fuel crisis appears to have had a striking and significant impact on both total emissions and ambient concentrations of POM during February 1977. The cumulative evidence indicates oil-burning for space heating is currently the most significant source of POM although it contributes only 10–20% of the TSP.The atmospheric concentrations of POM and TSP determined in this study were compared to those measured at the same site in 1968 and 1969. Although wintertime TSP levels have declined to almost one-half of the levels of 1968 and 1969, wintertime concentrations of airborne POM do not appear to have declined. The summertime concentrations of POM in 1977 and 1978 were about 40% higher than those determined for similar periods in 1968 and 1969.     

Acid rain at Kennedy Space Center,Florida: Recent observations

During the period July, 1977 to September, 1979, rainfall was collected in the vicinity of the Kennedy Space Center, Florida and subjected to appropriate chemical analysis for purposes of characterization of general composition and acidity. Results obtained form the basis for future comparisons, should significant alteration of the chemical composition of rain occur during the space shuttle era. Acidity extremes calculated on a monthly basis from event samples collected from five sites within a 200 km² area varied from pH 5.1 in November, 1977 and April, 1978 to pH 4.3 in July, 1978 and July, 1979. Weighted average pH for the entire period was 4.55. Acidity was due to the presence of sulfuric and nitric acids. The mole ratio of excess SO₄⁻²:NO₃⁻ was typically greater than one. Monthly weighted average Cl⁻ concentrations ranged from 20–240 micromoles/liter. The Cl⁻ :Na⁺ ratio was slightly lower than that present in sea water. The sample collection network was expanded during 16 months of the study to include 13 sites situated within a 600km² area. Monthly weighted average acidity and concentrations of other ions present in rain, based on samples collected from the five site network, agreed closely with corresponding concentrations determined from samples collected in the entire 13 site network.     

Source-related winter and summer variations in SO2, SO42− and vanadium in New York City from 1972 to 1979

The trends and patterns of sulfur oxides in New York City have been examined for the period 1972–1979. Particular emphasis was made of the sulfur content in fuel (above 0.3 %) exceptions granted for space heating and utilities. The results indicate that in the wintertime most area wide increases in SO₂ concentrations were due to space heating sources. In the summertime, the concentrations of SO₂ were significantly lower. The SO₄²⁻ concentrations in the winter have been generally lower than 1972 with one site showing a continual decline. The summertime SO₄²⁻ concentrations were variable from year to year. Results from summer intensive studies show a low correlation to local SO₂ concentrations. Thus, the summertime SO₄²⁻ concentration pattern indicates that the variation is not controlled significantly by the local summertime SO₂ source emissions.     

Effect of wind speed on the atmospheric levels of particles produced by traditional and non traditional sources on the island of curacao

The TSP, SO₄⁼ and Pb levels observed downwind of a large refinery and in the city of Willemstad in Curaçao are presented. The results show that wiht increasing wind speed TSP and SO₄⁼ levels increase while Pb levels decrease. On the other hand, at relatively constant wind speeds a good correlation between TSP and Pb was observed.The correlation observed between TSP, SO₄⁼ and Pb and the wind speed, the effect of rain on the atmospheric levels observed during the sampling period, the lack of secondary pollutants (e.g. ozone, NO₃^?) and the composition of the island background air, allow us to conclude that the SO₄⁼ measured at the monitoring sites is mainly produced as a primary pollutant in the refinery, the high atmospheric TSP levels are due to refinery emissions (traditional source) and the recirculation of street dust particles (non traditional source) produced by traffic and the predominantly high wind velocity.The implication on air quality and control measures are discussed.     

Air quality measurements in the coal fired power plant environment of Colstrip,Montana

A network of up to six air monitoring and sampling stations were operated (4–23 km) downwind of the 700 MW coal-fired power plants at Colstrip, Montana. Continuous monitoring identified background SO₂ levels in the surrounding air at approx 1 ppb (2.6 μg m⁻³). Average air concentrations measured in 1978 from power plant source directions increased to about 2 ppb (5.2 βg m⁻³). Meteorological and aerosol correlations with SO₂ concentrations helped identify and isolate the major source. The high sensitivity for SO₂ measurement provided resolution of all significant power plant plume fumigations at ground level. The magnitude of longer range SO₂ exposures were higher than predicted in this rough terrain environment.     

A simple model for diffusion of SO2 in Bergen

A model for computing daily mean SO₂ concentrations in Bergen, Norway, is developed and tested using SO₂ measurements from seven winter seasons during the 1970s. The meteorological predictors used are daily mean temperature, wind speed and temperature at two levels. Source strength is estimated from daily mean temperature. Correlations between observed and estimated SO₂ concentrations ranged between 0.8 and 0.9. Observed SO₂ levels declined by about 40 % from beginning to end of the observation period due to decreased SO₂ emission.     

Comparisons of ambient air particulates concentrations (TSP,PM2.5) and dry depositions during smog and non-smog periods at Luliao,Shalu District sampling site

The concentrations of ambient total suspended particulates (TSP) and PM_2.5, and the dry depositions at a sample site at Luliao Junior High School (Luliao) in central Taiwan were measured during smog and non-smog days between December 2017 and July 2018. The results are compared to those obtained during non-smog periods in the years 2015–2017. The mean TSP and PM_2.5 concentrations and dry deposition flux were 72.41?±?26.40, 41.88?±?23.51?μg/m³, and 797.57?±?731.46?μg/m² min, respectively, on the smog days. The mean TSP and PM_2.5 concentrations and dry deposition flux on the non-smog days were 56.39?±?18.08, 34.81?±?12.59?μg/m³ and 468.93?±?600.57?μg/m² min, respectively. The mean TSP concentration in the smog period was 28% greater than that in the non-smog period, and the mean PM_2.5 concentration was 20% higher. The mean dry deposition flux in the smog period was 70% higher than that in the non-smog period at Luliao. The PM_2.5 concentrations exceeded the standards set by the Taiwan EPA (35?μg/m³ daily, and 15?μg/m³ annually). Therefore, the TSP and PM_2.5 concentrations and dry deposition must be reduced in central Taiwan on smog days. In addition, atmospheric TSP and PM_2.5 concentrations at various sampling sites were compared, and those herein were not higher than those measured in other countries. Finally, apart from the local traffic emissions, during smog periods, the other pollution source originated from the transportation process of traffic pollutants emitted in the northwest side of Taiwan.     

Influence of meteorological factors on air pollution concentration for a coastal region in India

A long-term study of measurement of concentration of NO_x, SO₂ and TSP pollutants have been done in a port and harbour region in India. Monthly measurements of gaseous and particulate pollutants were made at six monitoring stations from January 1997 to December 2000. Meteorological data was also simultaneously collected. In this study, the relationship between monitored ambient air quality data and meteorological factors, such as wind speed, temperature, is statistically analysed, using the SPSS package. The monthly mean concentrations of NO_x, SO₂ and TSP were in the range of 19.5–59.0 μg/m3, 8.6–51.3 μg/m3 and 88.2–199.3 μg/m3, respectively. The results show that TSP is strongly correlated with NO_x and SO₂ with a correlation coefficient of 0.83 and 0.82, respectively. The correlation coefficients for TSP, NO_x, and SO₂ with wind are –0.78, –0.78, and –0.88, respectively.     

A note on air quality in high pressure systems

The O₃, SO₄ and TSP distribution and the visibility distribution are studied in a moving high pressure system in the eastern United States. It is shown that as the high pressure system moved into the region, the air pollution concentrations on the back side, relative to the direction of motion of the system, increased rapidly. The visibility had decreased significantly on the back side, but was extremely good on the front side.     

Photochemical oxidation and dispersion of gaseous sulfur compounds from natural and anthropogenic sources around a coastal location

The photochemical oxidation and dispersion of reduced sulfur compounds (RSCs: H₂S, CH₃SH, DMS, CS₂, and DMDS) emitted from anthropogenic (A) and natural (N) sources were evaluated based on a numerical modeling approach. The anthropogenic emission concentrations of RSCs were measured from several sampling sites at the Donghae landfill (D-LF) (i.e., source type A) in South Korea during a series of field campaigns (May through December 2004). The emissions of natural RSCs in a coastal study area near the D-LF (i.e., source type N) were estimated from sea surface DMS concentrations and transfer velocity during the same study period. These emission data were then used as input to the CALPUFF dispersion model, revised with 34 chemical reactions for RSCs. A significant fraction of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) was produced photochemically during the summer (about 34% of total SO₂ concentrations) followed by fall (21%), spring (15%), and winter (5%). Photochemical production of SO₂ was dominated by H₂S (about 55% of total contributions) and DMS (24%). The largest impact of RSCs from source type A on SO₂ concentrations occurred around the D-LF during summer. The total SO₂ concentrations produced from source type N around the D-LF during the summer (a mean SO₂ concentration of 7.4 ppbv) were significantly higher than those (≤0.3 ppbv) during the other seasons. This may be because of the high RSC and SO₂ emissions and their photochemistry along with the wind convergence.