Modeling Analysis of Power Plants for Compliance Extensions in 51 Air Quality Control Regions

Past studies indicate a nationwide potential low-sulfur coal supply deficit in 1975 arising from extremely low-sulfur State Implementation Plan requirements which cannot ail be met in time by available coal and gas cleaning technology. One means to alleviate this net deficit would be to grant variances where at least primary air quality standards would be maintained.

An extensive modeling analysis was conducted by EPA and Walden Research on a large number of power plants in 51 AQCRs located in 20 states to determine if compliance extensions at these plants could significantly reduce the projected deficit of lowsulfur coal. Using simulation modeling, air quality impact at each plant for projected 1975 operations was determined with application of SIP regulatory requirements and with a full variance from SIP requirements for coal-fired boilers. The results from this investigation indicate that the attainment of primary SO2 air quality standards for the coal-fired plants would probably not be jeopardized by the application of full variance status to 34% of the plants and limited variance status to an additional 22% of the plants. No variance is appropriate for the remaining plants. The projected annual reduction In low-sulfur coal demand (less than 1.0% sulfur) is approximately 137 million tons. The projected shift in the average coal sulfur distribution is from 1.2% under SIP status to 2.1% under the applicable variance status. The power plant variance strategy appears, then, to offer a potentially feasible approach toward alleviating the low-sulfur coal deficit problem without jeopardizing attainment of primary air quality standards. It should be emphasized that compliance extensions are not the only way, or the most desirable way, of dealing with this problem. The final selection of a strategy for a given state or AQCR and the implementation of that strategy involve many questions and policy matters beyond the scope of this study.     

Emission Impacts of Electric Vehicles

Alternative vehicular fuels are proposed as a strategy to reduce urban air pollution. In this paper, we analyze the emission Impacts of electric vehicles In California for two target years, 1995 and 2010. We consider a range of assumptions regarding electricity consumption of electric vehicles, emission control technologies for power plants, and the mix of primary energy sources for electricity generation. We find that, relative to continued use of gasoline-powered vehicles, the use of electric vehicles would dramatically and unequivocally reduce carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Under most conditions, nitrogen oxide emissions would decrease moderately. Sulfur oxide and particulate emissions would Increase or slightly decrease. Because other areas of the United States tend to use more coal in electricity generation and have less stringent emission controls on power plants, electric vehicles may have less emission reduction benefits outside California.     

Air Pollution Assessments Of New Fossil Energy Technologies

This paper presents an overview on air pollution assessments of new fossil energy technologies for baseload electric generating plants. The discussion is oriented towards those who must understand the broad issues affecting the design and performance of such power plants. It is motivated by the potential air pollution problems caused by the near doubling of coal use projected for the next 15 years.

The paper first reviews the applicable emissions performance standards for these plants, as well as predictions of likely future standards needed to protect the environment. The conclusion is reached that significantly tighter emissions standards will apply in the future.

Next, the cost, emissions performance, and development status of the three major technology groups for coal fired baseload plants are reviewed. It is observed that while all of the technologies can meet the current standards, only the Baseline plant with Advanced Control Technology can meet future standards, without unreasonable increases in electrical generation costs. Furthermore, since Advanced Direct Combustion Technologies and Fuel Conversion Technologies are in very early stages of development, only the Baseline plant with Advanced Control Technology will be available to the utilities in the near term. This is because it will be evolved from the current commercial Baseline Technology.

Hence, it is concluded that the utilities will use mainly the Baseline coal fired plant with Advanced Control Technology to protect the environment for the next 15-20 years.     

北京市燃煤的空气质量影响及其控制研究

建立了2005年北京市燃煤污染源排放清单,利用MM5-CMAQ模型计算了各区县各行业燃煤对北京市空气质量的影响。研究表明,2005年1月北京市燃煤源对各监测站点SO_2浓度的贡献在70%以上,对PM_(10)和NO_x浓度的贡献约为20%～40%和10%～30%;7月本地燃煤源对SO_2浓度的贡献在40%～50%左右。1月采暖锅炉对空气质量影响最大,占50%～70%;7月电厂的影响最大。依据北京市奥运空气质量保障方案以及"十一五"期间能源规划,建立了2010年燃煤污染源大气排放的规划情景,并模拟了各规划措施对大气质量的改善效果。通过实施电厂脱硫脱硝除尘、炼焦工业停产、钢铁行业和水泥行业搬迁减产、供热锅炉改造、平房用煤改造等措施,与2005年相比,SO_2平均浓度下降30%左右,NO_x和PM_(10)浓度的下降幅度15%。     

An analysis of numerical models of air pollutant exposure and vegetation response

A number of empirical (statistical, regression oriented) and mechanistic (process oriented) models are presently available to examine the relationship between air pollution stress and plant response. These models have their strengths and weaknesses. In all these models, a major concern is the numerical definition of the pollutant exposure kinetics (dose). At present there are no numerical definitions of dose which make satisfactory biological sense. A key issue is the existence of a biological time clock where plants respond differently to the pollutant stress at different stages of their growth. On the other hand, policy makers and regulatory personnel prefer a simple approach which would facilitate implementation and administration of ambient air quality standards. Long-term air pollutant averaging techniques create artifacts due to the non-normal distribution of ambient concentrations. A more appropriate approach may be the use of 'median' and 'percentiles' computed from short duration pollutant concentrations. Such an approach would be free of the influence of the non-normal distribution, but would require the development of appropriate exposure-response models. Any transfer of results from unit level models to regional level leads to 'scaling error'. There is no general agreement among researchers on how to deal with the scale problem. While this situation persists, any policy formulated on regional impact assessment must acknowledge the uncertainty.     

Cost-Effective Enforcement Of Environmental Standards

The body of information presented in this paper is directed to those individuals concerned with cost-effective enforcement of environmental standards. Its aim is twofold. One is to determine some of the differing impacts upon firm behavior of legal enforcement, of economic incentive enforcement, and of mixed legal-economic enforcement. A second objective is to initiate identification of enforcement systems which are most likely to minimize resource costs to firms and enforcement agencies of meeting environmental standards. A computerized model is used to simulate enforcement of the new source particu-late matter discharge standard for coal-fired power plants. Under current legal enforcement it is found that most plants will violate the standard, that small plants will control to higher removal levels than large plants and that firms will install relatively costly pollution control technology. Three enforcement alternatives are considered for overcoming these shortcomings: more stringent legal enforcement, economic incentive enforcement using effluent taxes, and a mixed system which uses device certification tests and effluent taxes. It is found that each of the alternatives can lead to the standard being met and tc more-or-less equal sharing in control burden across plant size. But it is only the two systems which use effluent taxes that give incentive for choosing least costly control technology. It is concluded that the two enforcement systems which use effluent taxes probably would encourage adoption of least cost control technology. This is likely to be a desirable outcome since it may lead to minimum resource costs to power plants and pollution control agencies of meeting fty ash standards. The general applicability of this conclusion to other enforcement situations is discussed.     

Modeling the benefits of power plant emission controls in Massachusetts

Older fossil-fueled power plants provide a significant portion of emissions of criteria air pollutants in the United States, in part because these facilities are not required to meet the same emission standards as new sources under the Clean Air Act. Pending regulations for older power plants need information about any potential public health benefits of emission reductions, which can be estimated by combining emissions information, dispersion modeling, and epidemiologic evidence. In this article, we develop an analytical modeling framework that can evaluate health benefits of emission controls, and we apply our model to two power plants in Massachusetts. Using the CALPUFF atmospheric dispersion model, we estimate that use of Best Available Control Technology (BACT) for NOx and SO2 would lead to maximum annual average secondary particulate matter (PM) concentration reductions of 0.2 microg/m3. When we combine concentration reductions with current health evidence, our central estimate is that the secondary PM reductions from these two power plants would avert 70 deaths per year in a population of 33 million individuals. Although benefit estimates could differ substantially with different interpretations of the health literature, parametric perturbations within CALPUFF and other simple model changes have relatively small impacts from an aggregate risk perspective. While further analysis would be required to reduce uncertainties and expand on our analytical model, our framework can help decision-makers evaluate the magnitude and distribution of benefits under different control scenarios.     

Status of the DOE/GEESI In-Duct Scrubbing Pilot Study

The recent promulgation of stack height regulations and possible changes in the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for sulfur dioxide and the associated dispersion model methodologies, could require older power plants to develop new compliance strategies and upgrade emission control systems. In such situations, an inexpensive, moderate removal efficiency flue gas desulfurization technology could maintain the cost effectiveness of these plants. Such a technology was selected by the Department of Energy for demonstration in its Acid Rain Precursor Control Technology Initiative. The process applies the rotary atomizer techniques developed for lime slurry dry flue gas desulfurization spray absorbers, and utilizes existing ductwork and particulate collectors. This induct scrubbing technology is anticipated to result in a dry desulfurization process of moderate removal efficiency. The critical elements for successful application are (i) adequate mixing for efficient reactant contact, (ii) sufficient residence time to produce a non-wetting product, and (iii) appropriate ductwork cross sectional areas to prevent deposition of reaction products before drying. The ductwork in many older power plants, previously modified to meet 1970 Clean Air Act requirements for particulate control, usually meets these criteria. A pilot study of the process is now in design-construct phase. Testing will start in 1987 and determine conditions under which the technology would be a cost effective approach to meeting emission reduction design criteria     

health effects associated with increased use of coal

The increased use of coal projected under the National Energy Plan has raised fears of increased morbidity and mortality related to fossil fuel combustion products. The evidence for adverse health effects from the major emissions of coal combustion is considered, as well as the basis for predictions of an increase in morbidity and mortality. It can be concluded that with presently available control technology, no detectable adverse health effects will be observed associated with increased coal combustion. It is further concluded that a reduction in energy supply, or a large increase in energy cost leading to reduced energy supply to lower socio-economic groups will cause far more demonstrable adverse health effects than increased coal utilization.     

Subisokinetic Sampling Errors for Aircraft Turbine Engine Smoke Probes

The years 2012 and beyond seem likely to record major changes in energy use and power generation. The Japanese tsunami has resulted in large countries either scaling back or abolishing the future use of nuclear energy. The discovery of what seems like vast amounts of economically deliverable natural gas has many forecasting a rapid switch from coal- to gas-fired generating plants. On the other hand, environmentalists have strong objections to the production of natural gas and of petroleum by hydraulic fracturing from shale, or by extraction of heavy oil. They believe that global warming from the use of fossil fuels is now established beyond question. There has been rapid progress in the development of alternative energy supplies, particularly from on-shore and off-shore wind. Progress toward a viable future energy mix has been slowed by a U.S. energy policy that seems to many to be driven by politics. The author will review the history of power and energy to put all of the above in context and will look at possible future developments. He will propose what he believes to be an idealized energy policy that could result in an optimum system that would be arrived at democratically.

Implications The combustion energy sector is believed to be a dominant component of environmental pollution. A multitude of technologies support this sector and many have the potential to replace elements of this sector with low-polluting processes. This review covers a selection of energy production technologies that are important for the future. A historical perspective is provided to advance the general knowledge about these technologies as options for the world's increasing demand for energy. In addition, a decarbonization policy option for an energy fee is proposed as an alternative to carbon taxation or cap-and-trade approaches.     

Black carbon emissions in China

Black carbon (BC) is an important aerosol species because of its global and regional influence on radiative forcing and its local effects on the environment and human health. We have estimated the emissions of BC in China, where roughly one-fourth of global anthropogenic emissions is believed to originate. China's high rates of usage of coal and biofuels are primarily responsible for high BC emissions. This paper pays particular attention to the application of appropriate emission factors for China and the attenuation of these emissions where control devices are used. Nevertheless, because of the high degree of uncertainty associated with BC emission factors, we provide ranges of uncertainty for our emission estimates, which are approximately a factor of eight. In our central case, we calculate that BC emissions in China in 1995 were 1342 Gg, about 83% being generated by the residential combustion of coal and biofuels. We estimate that BC emissions could fall to 1224 Gg by 2020. This 9% decrease in BC emissions can be contrasted with the expected increase of 50% in energy use; the reduction will be obtained because of a transition to more advanced technology, including greater use of coal briquettes in place of raw coal in cities and towns. The increased use of diesel vehicles in the future will result in a greater share of the transport sector in total BC emissions. Spatially, BC emissions are predominantly distributed in an east–west swath across China's heartland, where the rural use of coal and biofuels for cooking and heating is widespread. This is in contrast to the emissions of most other anthropogenically derived air pollutants, which are closely tied to population and industrial centers.     

The role of coal technologies to support responsible economic growth

The Asian Pacific region is home to the fastest-growing economies in the world. These economies are expected to double gross domestic product (GDP) in the next decade, and coal will play a major role as the primary energy source for electric power. The tremendous projected financial burden associated with the installation of new, coal-fired electric power facilities to fuel this unprecedented economic growth has focused efforts to identify existing and new sources of financing for major thermal power projects that are efficient and environmentally responsible. The economics are trying to accelerate economic development and promote the leveraging of in-country resources to meet their electric power objectives. With the growth in power production will come more greenhouse gas emissions and negative environmental impacts. The means to reducing these impacts is clean coal technology, which is becoming more and more accepted for debt financing. Competition for debt financing is becoming tighter worldwide, with increased use of project financing. Representatives of the coal technology and equipment industries believe that the availability of non-recourse financing is an impediment to greater penetration of clean coal technology into electric power markets in Asian Pacific economies. Better use of existing infrastructure project financing instruments and management of risk in Asian markets are critical to the development and acceptance of clean coal technology to meet greenhouse gas abatement and economic goals.     

Environmental and economic evaluation of bioenergy in Ontario, Canada

We examined life cycle environmental and economic implications of two near-term scenarios for converting cellulosic biomass to energy, generating electricity from cofiring biomass in existing coal power plants, and producing ethanol from biomass in stand-alone facilities in Ontario, Canada. The study inventories near-term biomass supply in the province, quantifies environmental metrics associated with the use of agricultural residues for producing electricity and ethanol, determines the incremental costs of switching from fossil fuels to biomass, and compares the cost-effectiveness of greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollutant emissions abatement achieved through the use of the bioenergy. Implementing a biomass cofiring rate of 10% in existing coal-fired power plants would reduce annual GHG emissions by 2.3 million metric tons (t) of CO2 equivalent (7% of the province's coal power plant emissions). The substitution of gasoline with ethanol/gasoline blends would reduce annual provincial lightduty vehicle fleet emissions between 1.3 and 2.5 million t of CO2 equivalent (3.5-7% of fleet emissions). If biomass sources other than agricultural residues were used, additional emissions reductions could be realized. At current crude oil prices ($70/barrel) and levels of technology development of the bioenergy alternatives, the biomass electricity cofiring scenario analyzed is more cost-effective for mitigating GHG emissions ($22/t of CO2 equivalent for a 10% cofiring rate) than the stand-alone ethanol production scenario ($92/t of CO2 equivalent). The economics of biomass cofiring benefits from existing capital, whereas the cellulosic ethanol scenario does not. Notwithstanding this result, there are several factors that increase the attractiveness of ethanol. These include uncertainty in crude oil prices, potential for marked improvements in cellulosic ethanol technology and economics, the province's commitment to 5% ethanol content in gasoline, the possibility of ethanol production benefiting from existing capital, and there being few alternatives for moderate-to-large-scale GHG emissions reductions in the transportation sector.     

International cooperation and the adoption of environmentally responsible technologies

Adoption of technologies for energy production with improved environmental performance is essential for supporting world economic growth and managing the global warming and climate change issues. International cooperation is critical to ensure the environmental and energy security of world economies on a global basis. For example, the USA has acquired a great deal of useful experience in clean coal technology, which has been demonstrated with major utilities in commercial operations. The adoption and installation of clean coal technology should be given high priority worldwide. The continuous exchange of information and technology between developed and developing economies relating to current and future use of environmentally responsive technologies is of great importance. Developed economies that possess environmentally responsive technologies and financial resources should work closely with developing economies to facilitate technology transfer and trade of technologies. Cooperation between economies can result in lowering the cost of deploying clean coal technologies directed toward the clean production of energy. This paper discusses a bilateral approach, i.e. the US/China Center for Energy and Environment, to facilitate the mitigation of emissions and promote the clean use of coal to satisfy growing energy demand in developing economies.     

Energy supplies and future engines for land, sea, and air

The years 2012 and beyond seem likely to record major changes in energy use and power generation. The Japanese tsunami has resulted in large countries either scaling back or abolishing the future use of nuclear energy. The discovery of what seems like vast amounts of economically deliverable natural gas has many forecasting a rapid switch from coal- to gas-fired generating plants. On the other hand, environmentalists have strong objections to the production of natural gas and of petroleum by hydraulic fracturing from shale, or by extraction of heavy oil. They believe that global warming from the use of fossil fuels is now established beyond question. There has been rapid progress in the development of alternative energy supplies, particularly from on-shore and off-shore wind. Progress toward a viable future energy mix has been slowed by a U.S. energy policy that seems to many to be driven by politics. The author will review the history of power and energy to put all of the above in context and will look at possible future developments. He will propose what he believes to be an idealized energy policy that could result in an optimum system that would be arrived at democratically.     

Solubility analysis and disposal options of combustion residues from plants grown on contaminated mining area

Biomass, as a renewable energy source, is an excellent alternative for the partial replacement of fossil fuels in thermal and electric energy production. A new fuel type as biomass for energy utilisation includes ligneous plants with considerable heavy metal content. The combustion process must be controlled during the firing of significant quantities of contaminated biomass grown on brownfield lands. By implementing these measures, air pollution and further soil contamination caused by the disposal of the solid burning residue, the ash, can be prevented. For the test samples from ligneous plants grown on heavy metal-contaminated fields, an ore mine (already closed for 25 years) was chosen. With our focus on the determination of the heavy metal content, we have examined the composition of the soil, the biomass and the combustion by-products (ash, fly ash). Our results confirm that ash resulting from the combustion must be treated as toxic waste and its deposition must take place on hazardous waste disposal sites. Biomass of these characteristics can be burnt in special combustion facility that was equipped with means for the disposal of solid burning residues as well as air pollutants.     

Panel Calls Beneficiation-FGD Combination “Most Economical,Best Ail-Around Choice”

The Commerce Technical Advisory Board (CTAB) Panel on Sulfur Oxide mission Control Technology was established in the spring of_1975 by the Secretary of Commerce in response to the urgent need for the use of coal to meet the Nation’s energy requirements, while maintaining the SO₂ emission standards resulting from the Clean Air Act of 1970.

The Panel’s 20 members and 11 consultants, drawn broadly from industry, government, and academia are highly qualified in the diverse fields pertinent to SO_x control technologies. They committed themselves to make an objective analysis of how soon, at what cost, and with what trade-offs commercially available SO₂ continuous emissions controls can be installed, with arrangements for waste disposal, in all coal-fifed electricity generating plants in the populous Northeastern quadrant of the United States.

In its final report, submitted on September 10, 1975 to Dr. Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology, U. S.Department of Commerce, and Chairman of the Commerce Technical Advisory Board, the Panel concludes that installation and operation of continuous SO_x emission controls on all Northeastern coal-fired electricity generating plants cannot be met until the early 1980’s, and then only with a maximum effort beginning immediately. Specific site and market constraints will determine the most economical and practical control technology for any given plant. The Panel believes that coal beneficiation, alone where it meets standards, or combined with lime/limestone flue gas desulfurization, often represents the lowest cost control technique.     

Control strategies of atmospheric mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants in China

Atmospheric mercury (Hg) emission from coal is one of the primary sources of anthropogenic discharge and pollution. China is one of the few countries in the world whose coal consumption constitutes about 70% of total primary energy, and over half of coals are burned directly for electricity generation. Atmospheric emissions of Hg and its speciation from coal-fired power plants are of great concern owing to their negative impacts on regional human health and ecosystem risks, as well as long-distance transport. In this paper, recent trends of atmospheric Hg emissions and its species split from coal-fired power plants in China during the period of 2000-2007 are evaluated, by integrating each plant's coal consumption and emission factors, which are classified by different subcategories of boilers, particulate matter (PM) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) control devices. Our results show that the total Hg emissions from coal-fired power plants have begun to decrease from the peak value of 139.19 t in 2005 to 134.55 t in 2007, though coal consumption growing steadily from 1213.8 to 1532.4 Mt, which can be mainly attributed to the co-benefit Hg reduction by electrostatic precipitators/fabric filters (ESPs/FFs) and wet flue gas desulfurization (WFGD), especially the sharp growth in installation of WFGD both in the new and existing power plants since 2005. In the coming 12th five-year-plan, more and more plants will be mandated to install De-NO(x) (nitrogen oxides) systems (mainly selective catalytic reduction [SCR] and selective noncatalytic reduction [SNCR]) for minimizing NO(x) emission, thus the specific Hg emission rate per ton of coal will decline further owing to the much higher co-benefit removal efficiency by the combination of SCR + ESPs/FFs + WFGD systems. Consequently, SCR + ESPs/FFs + WFGD configuration will be the main path to abate Hg discharge from coal-fired power plants in China in the near future. However advanced specific Hg removal technologies are necessary for further reduction of elemental Hg discharge in the long-term.     

A Method for Determining Source Reduction Required to Meet Air Quality Standards

Governmental boundaries which divide our states frequently do not coincide with the natural geographic and atmospheric conditions affecting regional air pollution problems. Moreover, the control regulations of one state may vary from those of its neighbors. Such areal synthesis of air pollution control measures might only minimally curb the difficulties.

Continuity of control will require cooperation among contiguous states. In this study the attitudes of incumbent elected officials and air pollution experts (both from within the Philadelphia metropolitan area) toward governmental responsiveness have been investigated. It was hypothesized that politicians would want to demonstrate a status quo approach while experts would advocate the creation of an environmental agency for the Philadelphia region’s pollution problems. However, both sample groups responded to the questionnaire survey affirming that they want government to establish an environmental regional control agency, based upon an interstate compact, that has authority strong enough to be a strict enforcing agent. This regional agency should meet all federal conditions and thus receive maximum federal financial assistance. The policy level officials of this agency should be appointed experts—so as to avoid partisan politics, and to acquire the most qualified personnel.     

Separation and capture of CO2 from large stationary sources and sequestration in geological formations--coalbeds and deep saline aquifers

The topic of global warming as a result of increased atmospheric CO2 concentration is arguably the most important environmental issue that the world faces today. It is a global problem that will need to be solved on a global level. The link between anthropogenic emissions of CO2 with increased atmospheric CO2 levels and, in turn, with increased global temperatures has been well established and accepted by the world. International organizations such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have been formed to address this issue. Three options are being explored to stabilize atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and global temperatures without severely and negatively impacting standard of living: (1) increasing energy efficiency, (2) switching to less carbon-intensive sources of energy, and (3) carbon sequestration. To be successful, all three options must be used in concert. The third option is the subject of this review. Specifically, this review will cover the capture and geologic sequestration of CO2 generated from large point sources, namely fossil-fuel-fired power gasification plants. Sequestration of CO2 in geological formations is necessary to meet the President's Global Climate Change Initiative target of an 18% reduction in GHG intensity by 2012. Further, the best strategy to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of CO2 results from a multifaceted approach where sequestration of CO2 into geological formations is combined with increased efficiency in electric power generation and utilization, increased conservation, increased use of lower carbon-intensity fuels, and increased use of nuclear energy and renewables. This review covers the separation and capture of CO2 from both flue gas and fuel gas using wet scrubbing technologies, dry regenerable sorbents, membranes, cryogenics, pressure and temperature swing adsorption, and other advanced concepts. Existing commercial CO2 capture facilities at electric power-generating stations based on the use of monoethanolamine are described, as is the Rectisol process used by Dakota Gasification to separate and capture CO2 from a coal gasifier. Two technologies for storage of the captured CO2 are reviewed--sequestration in deep unmineable coalbeds with concomitant recovery of CH4 and sequestration in deep saline aquifers. Key issues for both of these techniques include estimating the potential storage capacity, the storage integrity, and the physical and chemical processes that are initiated by injecting CO2 underground. Recent studies using computer modeling as well as laboratory and field experimentation are presented here. In addition, several projects have been initiated in which CO2 is injected into a deep coal seam or saline aquifer. The current status of several such projects is discussed. Included is a commercial-scale project in which a million tons of CO2 are injected annually into an aquifer under the North Sea in Norway. The review makes the case that this can all be accomplished safely with off-the-shelf technologies. However, substantial research and development must be performed to reduce the cost, decrease the risks, and increase the safety of sequestration technologies. This review also includes discussion of possible problems related to deep injection of CO2. There are safety concerns that need to be addressed because of the possibilities of leakage to the surface and induced seismic activity. These issues are presented along with a case study of a similar incident in the past. It is clear that monitoring and verification of storage will be a crucial part of all geological sequestration practices so that such problems may be avoided. Available techniques include direct measurement of CO2 and CH4 surface soil fluxes, the use of chemical tracers, and underground 4-D seismic monitoring. Ten new hypotheses were formulated to describe what happens when CO2 is pumped into a coal seam. These hypotheses provide significant insight into the fundamental chemical, physical, and thermodynamic phenomena that occur during coal seam sequestration of CO2.