The New Clean Air Act Operating Permit Program: EPA’s Proposed Regulations

The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments added a new Title V to the Act which establishes an operating permit program for numerous sources of air pollution. Certain sources are currently required to obtain a construction or “new source review” permit; the 1990 Amendments will require many more sources to apply for a permit which will give them permission to operate. CAA Title V was modeled on the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit provisions of the Clean Water Act, but there are important differences between the two statutes.

Although many states already have their own operating permit programs, by late 1993 every state must establish a program that meets the requirements of Title V and EPA’s implementing regulations. EPA recently proposed these regulations, and by the statutory deadline of November 15, 1991 hopes to issue final regulations establishing the minimum elements of state operating permit programs. These regulations will significantly affect implementation of air pollution measures for years to come because a Title V operating permit will have to assure compliance with all applicable CAA requirements. In addition, permitted sources will be required to pay fees to cover the costs of the permit program.     

Implementing Pollution Prevention: Incentives and Irrationalities

Widespread pollution prevention will turn on creative use of incentives, since prevention means decentralized changes in raw materials, products, production processes and disposal practices—in short, new ways of doing business—that are difficult to achieve through information transfer or regulatory mandates alone. But past experience with incentives and the context in which these approaches are used will shape both regulators’ attitudes and industry willingness to respond. Thus the choice of incentive mechanism (s) may well determine the extent to which “prevention” is implemented—as well as the extent to which implementation yields environmentally-sound rather than perverse results. Approaches now being debated could produce such perverse effects by treating recyclables as pollution and assuming all reductions towards zero are equally desirable, regardless of net risks reduced or costs incurred by waste generators. Another alternative— tradeable permits progressively reducing the amount of waste received by disposal facilities—could help agencies think through such consequences, force needed decisions on how much “prevention” of which “pollution” is appropriate, and encourage investment to reduce commercial as well as municipal waste. This alternative implies that the criteria for “appropriate prevention” are reduction in waste needing disposal and in overall environmental impact; that recycling should be equated with source reduction in waste management hierarchies, not placed on a lower rung; and that Air Toxics provisions of the pending Clean Air Act may require some adjustments if prevention is not to be aborted by the threat that voluntary reduction steps will become national requirements, for existing sources as well as new ones.     

Methodology for the Study of Public Attitudes Concerning Air Pollution

A significant element of a community's total air pollution picture is the “state of mind” of the people living in the area with respect to air pollution. The reasons why a study of public attitudes can be an important factor in planning an air pollution control program are briefly summarized. The methodology applied in one such study in the St. Louis Metropolitan area is described, and possible variations related to different scope, objectives and survey area characteristics are suggested.     

Effects of wind shear on pollution dispersion

Using an accurate numerical method for simulating the advection and diffusion of pollution puffs, it is demonstrated that point releases of pollution grow into a shape reflecting the vertical wind shear profile experienced by the puff within a time scale less than 4 h. For distances beyond several 10 s of kilometers from a release point, shear-related dispersion effects are probably the dominant mechanism affecting the area and magnitude of surface impacts. For assessing long-range pollutant dispersion, the common assumption that pollutants disperse as horizontally spherical “puffs” in the atmosphere is inherently inaccurate since shear-induced horizontal spreading of pollution is not a homogeneous “turbulent-like” diffusion process. A Lagrangian puff model can simulate an area impacted by a pollution puff only if larger shear-dependent horizontal puff dispersions are assumed. However, even if impacted areas are reasonably simulated, peak concentrations will be severely underestimated since atmospheric puffs influenced by even small amounts of wind shear are nonspherical. If horizontal dispersion coefficients in a Lagrangian puff model are adjusted so that peak concentrations are correctly simulated, then the calculated pollution impact area will be severely skewed. In shear environments, no choice of horizontal dispersion coefficients in a single-puff Lagrangian model will yield reasonable correlations with puffs that are skewed into nonspherical shapes by atmospheric wind shear.     

Contribution of Ecosystem Services to Air Quality and Climate Change Mitigation Policies: The Case of Urban Forests in Barcelona,Spain

Mounting research highlights the contribution of ecosystem services provided by urban forests to quality of life in cities, yet these services are rarely explicitly considered in environmental policy targets. We quantify regulating services provided by urban forests and evaluate their contribution to comply with policy targets of air quality and climate change mitigation in the municipality of Barcelona, Spain. We apply the i-Tree Eco model to quantify in biophysical and monetary terms the ecosystem services “air purification,” “global climate regulation,” and the ecosystem disservice “air pollution” associated with biogenic emissions. Our results show that the contribution of urban forests regulating services to abate pollution is substantial in absolute terms, yet modest when compared to overall city levels of air pollution and GHG emissions. We conclude that in order to be effective, green infrastructure-based efforts to offset urban pollution at the municipal level have to be coordinated with territorial policies at broader spatial scales.     

New York State’s Action for Clean Air Program

In New York State there is a tradition of teamwork between industry and government toward air pollution control programs. This was demonstrated initially when Associated Industries assisted in writing New York State’s Air Pollution Control Law. Industry in New York State has accepted a two-way responsibility for educating industry and the public. New York State’s Department of Public Health has organized an “Action for Clean Air” program and Associated Industries of New York has joined with official agencies in promoting the public information program to lessen the possibility of hysteria.     

Soiling Potential—A New Method for Measuring Smoke Emission

There is a growing interest in effects of sub-micron, nonsettling particles in the atmosphere among air pollution control agencies throughout the country. This type of pollution, generally referred to as the “soiling index” of the atmosphere, is produced primarily by the incomplete combustion of fuels. The measurement procedure has been fairly well standardized, the values being reported as Cohs or Ruds per 1000 linear feet of air. Using a similar technique, a method of quantitating smoke emission in objective terms first demonstrated by W. C. L. Hemeon in 1953, has been applied to source testing at several operating plants by the Cincinnati Division of Air Pollution Control. The source strength will be called “soiling potential” while the effect in the general atmosphere is termed “soiling index.” The soiling potential unit is Rud-ft² per cubic foot exhaust gases or Rud-ft² per unit of fuel input. The “Soiling Potential” sampler is described and results of tests are given. Included is the use of soiling potential in quantitating smoke emission from single sources and for constructing area wide inventory of smoke emission. The use of an area wide smoke emission inventory in Rudft2 in a simple diffusion model for calculating the soiling index (Rud-ft²/1000 cu ft) in the general atmosphere at a given point is explored.     

Air Pollution Control and Public Apathy

The importance of public involvement in programs of air pollution control has been stressed by a number of writers in the field, most recently by Sterner in his comments to the Third National Conference on Air Pollution.¹ As he points out, public apathy appears to be a critical barrier in the development and implementation of effective control programs. Along the same line, Dixon and Lodge, in a digest of the report of the AAAS Air Conservation Committee, state that, “The best program in the world can fail in the face of opposition or apathy on the part of the public.”² It is the purpose of this paper to take a more analytical look at this problem, particularly in the light of recent data from an opinion survey in West Virginia. If such apathy exists, effective countermeasures require that we examine it more fully and understand its sources. Collective handwringing will do little to meet the problem.     

Air Quality Impact of Aircraft at Ten U.S. Air Force Bases

Data on visits to New York City metropolitan area hospital emergency rooms for asthmatic attacks were analyzed to identify asthma “events”: days when the number of such visits was unusually high. In the fall season such days tended to occur simultaneously at all hospitals of the study, and thus can be plausibly associated with some environmental agent acting simultaneously throughout the city. Data on sulfur dioxide and particulate concentrations from the 40-station New York City Aerometric Network were used as pollution measures, and a search for a relationship between asthma “events” and air pollution levels on the same day and on the preceding day was made using standard statistical techniques. No relationship was found.     

Wet vs Dry Gas Cleaning In the Steel Industry

Deciding whether the gas should be cleaned by a “dry” system or a “wet” system requires a full consideration of all factors of which the capital cost is only one. Anticipating the various problems which might be expected and designing adequate measures for each calls for major engineering effort,but onlythen can a best choice be made. The principles which govern the above are illustrated by a typical selection of gas cleaning equipment to be used as part of a BOF steel making installation. Two entirely different gas cleaning systems are presently in BOF service in North America. Both will do an excellent job if properly designed. Either system will cost in excess of $2,000,000 and will require careful control and large amounts of electrical power. One system, the dry electrostatic precipitator, requires humidification of the gas; protection against explosions; elaborate electrical controls, insulators, etc.; and a rugged handling system for the bone dry dust collected. The other system, wet washing with water, Is easier to control but uses large quantities of water and electric power. As in the case of the “dry” system, handling the dirt collected is a difficult problem requiring careful study and choice of equipment. In either case the dust may be discarded or reused, but it must be handled with care lest it become an air or stream pollution problem all over again.     

California Experience with Air Quality Standards

Air quality standards have existed in California for almost six years. They have become an important part of the State’s air pollution control program.

The two principal uses of the standards have been to establish the goals for controlling motor vehicle emissions and to provide a basis for evaluating air quality throughout the State. The standards have also proved to be valuable as a means of communicating on air pollution problems with legislators, administrators, the press, the public, and dischargers of pollutants.

Lack of adequate data on the effects of varying concentrations of contaminants of concern in air pollution is a serious limitation in any effort to establish air quality standards.It is important that this data be obtained.

The concept of employing air quality standards as administrative goals is not unique to the air pollution field but is part of a broad trend to utilize standards for insuring a satisfactory environment. Those engaged in the air pollution field can expect to see increasing emphasis on such standards.

Air quality standards do not provide a magic formula for eliminating air pollution; they are but one element in a comprehensive program. They have limitations and are no better than the data upon which they are based. The standards, however, can play an important role in preserving satisfactory air quality and protecting man’s health.

In using air quality standards, one should keep in mind the comments of H. W. Streeter⁵ on water quality standards—“Let us devise them, try them, revise them, and apply them, but also remember that they are but ’feeble instruments of the human will’ and like all other such tools are made to be discarded for better ones when they become worn out.“     

VEGETATION Symptoms as a MEASURE of AIR POLLUTION

January 1984 forecasts by The Mcllvaine Company project variable but promising worldwide industry trends for the coming year. The influence on the market of air pollution legislation (in particular, acid rain legislation), gauged by utility planning trends, is discussed in the context of a shifting world market. Specialties within the segmented air pollution control market are categorized by the “market leader” concept, with which the author identifies a number of top companies as “world market leaders.”     

Dwindling regional environmental pollution through industrial structure adjustment and higher education development

This paper uses Chinese provincial data from 2006 to 2021 as a sample period to study the relationship between higher education development, industrial structure adjustment, and environmental pollution. Conclusions were as follows: (1) the industry structure adjustment can reduce environmental pollution in Chinese regions except eastern, and the increase in the proportion of the tertiary industry will increase pollution emissions in the eastern region. (2) Although there is a negative correlation between higher education and environmental pollution in China, it is not significant. From different regions, the coefficients in the eastern are positive which means aggravated environmental pollution, and the coefficients in the central region are not significant, but higher education in the western region improves environmental pollution. (3) Urbanization has a significant moderating effect on the national and regional environmental pollution, but in the central and western regions, it is smaller than the eastern region; although environmental regulation has a certain inhibitory effect on environmental pollution, the coefficient in the eastern region is significantly positive, and there is a situation of “more pollution, more control.” Further, the increase of foreign direct investment will aggravate environmental pollution; although the elasticity coefficient in the eastern region is negative, there is a trend of improving environmental pollution, but it is not significant. The study holds promising implications for the development of policies related to education, industry, and the environment. Through the research on the relationship between the three, exploring and improving the regional environmental pollution level from the perspective of higher education and industrial structure have important practical significance for the regional green development.

     

The Regulation of Toxic Air Pollutants A Critical Review

ABSTRACT

Passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments launched the Acid Rain Program in the United States. This initiative, based on the market mechanism of a sulfur dioxide tradable “allowance” system, was a dramatic departure from traditional command and control strategies designed to reduce air pollution emissions. Power plant managers have flexibility under the program to select and implement a variety of options to reduce emissions below mandated levels. Federal agencies have collected annual performance data for affected facilities covered by the program for a number of years. Coal-burning plants are typically greater generators of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) than oil burners of equivalent size. This study examined the effect of fuel type as a significant factor influencing a plant's achievement in reducing pollution emissions. Achievement was measured by using a derived variable, delta (A), defined as the difference between pounds of SO₂ produced divided by the energy (in million Btu) generated, for the years 1990 and 1995. Rigorous nonparametric statistical analyses were used to compare the two populations of coal-fired and oil-fired plants. Results indicated that coal-burning facilities achieved greater program success, measured by the expected value of delta, than the oil combustors for the five-year period reviewed. Since utility managers must take steps to ensure all applicable requirements of the program are met, findings of the inquiry should prove to be useful in assessing achievable emissions reductions and aid in long-range facility planning.     

An Example of Planning for Pollution Control in Kraft Pulping

Two factors have contributed to the preparation of this paper. The first stemmed from Morton Sterling’s remarks in his address to the Houston Meeting. Therein he suggested the value of industry making public the progress made in overcoming pollution problems. Interest in Kraft Pulping Pollution problems on a wider scale constituted the second factor. This is well illustrated by the U.S.P.H.S. annotated bibliography, “Air Pollution and the Kraft Pulping Industry.” This paper will not contribute any new technology. It will, however, indicate how an established plant, in a large urban area, has planned and taken action to solve a pollution problem. Planning in this situation is used in a broad sense. It includes education and training of personnel, changes in process, capital expenditure and new installations, constant attention to maintenance and control, utilization of research and development from all sources, and relations with the public and regulatory agencies.     

Automatic Air Monitoring and Telemetering to Central Points In Allegheny County

This year an automatic monitoring system will supplement existing air sampling stations in Allegheny County (Pittsburgh). This system will measure pollutant levels and weather conditions at several remote sites. “On-site” recorders are equipped to telemeter the data in analog form to a central station. At the central, a multipoint recorder is supplied for each pollutant measured. This basic system, purchased for a modest initial investment, has complete capabilities for future expansion. An estimated fifteen sites will provide representative pollution data for Allegheny County. However, the basic system can be expanded to include industry installed monitoring stations—a possibilty now being considered. Further expansion to a complete Data Management system including a computer based data logger to calculate emission inventory, peak averages, and other control data is also provided for.     

Time-series analysis of air pollution data

Time-series analysis of air pollution environmental levels involves the identification of long-term variation in the mean (trend) and of cyclical or periodic components. A model based on a stepwise approach to time-series analysis was applied to the daily average concentrations of strong acidity (SA) and black smoke (BS) in the Oporto area, using an available computer program. Each step is completed by a correlation analysis of the residuals, allowing the identification of an optimal structure with a residual white noise. A periodic component with harmonics defined through “peaks” of concentration on week middle days and “troughs” on weekends was observed. SA concentration behaviour can be related with industrial activities, mainly through fossil-fuel burning in discontinuous working cycles. The observed evolution for BS is most probably related with weekly patterns of motor traffic, with observed minimum values during weekends. The periodic components represent, on the average, about 5% of the total variance for the SA series and 15% for the BS series. However, the weekly cycles are predominant in the SA series, representing on the average 75% of the periodic variance, against 46% for the BS series. Statistically significant higher frequency (≈2–4 day) periodic components were observed for both pollutant indicators and for all collection sites analysed. This may be due to synoptic weather variations of minimum and maximum daily temperature and precipitation, which show similar periods in the study area.     

The pollution halo effect of technology spillover and pollution haven effect of economic growth in agricultural foreign trade: two sides of the same coin?

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - The existing literature on the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) fails to investigate the spatial attribute of the “pollution halo” effect...     

Systematic screening of common wastewater-marking pharmaceuticals in urban aquatic environments: implications for environmental risk control

In this report, we refer to pharmaceuticals that are widespread in the urban aquatic environment and that mainly originate from wastewater treatment plants or non-point source sewage as “wastewater-marking pharmaceuticals” (WWMPs). To some extent, they reflect the condition or trend of water contamination and also contribute to aquatic environmental risk assessment. The method reported here for screening typical WWMPs was proposed based on academic concerns about them and their concentrations present in the urban aquatic environment, as well as their properties of accumulation, persistence, eco-toxicity and related environmental risks caused by them. The screening system consisted of an initial screening system and a further screening system. In the former, pharmaceuticals were categorised into different evaluation levels, and in the latter, each pharmaceutical was given a normalised final evaluation score, which was the sum of every score for its properties of accumulation, persistence, eco-toxicity and environmental risk in the aquatic environment. The system was applied to 126 pharmaceuticals frequently detected in the aquatic environment. In the initial screening procedure, five pharmaceuticals were classified into the “high” category, 16 pharmaceuticals into the “medium” category, 15 pharmaceuticals into the “low” category and 90 pharmaceuticals into the “very low” category. Subsequently, further screening were conducted on 36 pharmaceuticals considered as being of “high”, “medium” and “low” categories in the former system. We identified 7 pharmaceuticals with final evaluation scores of 1–10, 10 pharmaceuticals with scores of 11–15, 15 pharmaceuticals with scores from 16 to 20 and 4 pharmaceuticals with scores above 21. The results showed that this screening system could contribute to the effective selection of target WWMPs, which would be important for spatial-temporal dynamics, transference and pollution control of pharmaceuticals in the urban aquatic environment. However, there remains a number of pharmaceutical parameters with measured data gaps, such as organic carbon adsorption coefficients and bioconcentration factors, which, if filled, would improve the accuracy of the screening system.