Jet Aircraft Operations: Impact on the Air Environment

This paper is directed to those concerned with the air environment and its degradation by the burden of pollution from jet aircraft operations. A summary is presented of the results of a comprehensive air pollution study of jet aircraft operations at the Los Angeles International Airport (LAX). Included in the data obtained from this study are jet engine exhaust measurements for currently used turboprop, turbojet and turbofan engines; measurements of specific contaminants in the atmosphere inside and outside of passenger terminals and ticketing areas, and in aircraft cabins during ground operations including passenger loading and taxiing prior to takeoff; also presented are ambient air measurements in a two-mile radius of the airport. An evaluation is made of the emissions of contaminants from air transport operations and all related ground activities including motor vehicles, that contribute to the total atmospheric contaminant burden at the airport.     

Real-Time Measurements of Jet Aircraft Engine Exhaust

Abstract

Particulate-phase exhaust properties from two different types of ground-based jet aircraft engines—high-thrust and turboshaft—were studied with real-time instruments on a portable pallet and additional time-integrated sampling devices. The real-time instruments successfully characterized rapidly changing particulate mass, light absorption, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content. The integrated measurements included particulate-size distributions, PAH, and carbon concentrations for an entire test run (i.e., “run-integrated” measurements). In all cases, the particle-size distributions showed single modes peaking at 20–40nm diameter. Measurements of exhaust from high-thrust F404 engines showed relatively low-light absorption compared with exhaust from a turboshaft engine. Particulate-phase PAH measurements generally varied in phase with both net particulate mass and with light-absorbing particulate concentrations. Unexplained response behavior sometimes occurred with the real-time PAH analyzer, although on average the real-time and integrated PAH methods agreed within the same order of magnitude found in earlier investigations.     

A Finite Line Source Dispersion Model for Mobile Source Air Pollution

The body of information presented in this paper is directed to individuals interested in dispersion modeling, and in particular to those concerned with evaluation of air quality in the vicinities of airports and roadways. The paper describes briefly the formulation and application of a finite line source dispersion model constructed on the basis of a Gaussian-type transport kernel. The formulation is sufficiently general that any arbitrary orientation of the line can be handled. For cases where the line is at small angles with respect to the wind, approximate expressions as well as segmentation of the line, if necessary, are used. These are Integrated into the general algorithmic scheme by means of a series of geometric tests. The general capabilities of the model are tested first with some hypothetical cases and then with actual air quality data. The latter case studies correspond to three separate periods of air quality monitoring at O’Hare Airport during which the aircraft emissions and the ground vehicle emissions play alternately important roles. The generally good agreement between model predictions and air quality data provides support for the validity of the approach. The overall efficiency of the model in terms of computer time as well as its limitations are briefly discussed.     

Instrumenting Light Aircraft for Air Pollution Research

Light aircraft and helicopters have been occasionally used to conduct aerial traverses for a single pollutant or atmospheric tracer. The continuous analyzer or sample collector is temporarily tied down with a seat belt or hand held. Flight variables are visually observed and written on the recorder chart, a notebook or possibly voice-recorded on a portable tape recorder. The versatile airborne instrumentation package described can measure and record up to 27 pollutant and flight variables from a Cessna Skymaster center-line thrust, light twin. Real-time analysis instrumentation include non-dispersive infrared analyzers for CO₂, CO, and hydrocarbons, conductivity and coulometric analyzers for sulfur dioxide and sulfur-containing gases, and Charlson-Ahlquist visual range nephelometer. A Battelle “bulk sampler” is used to collect particulates for weighing and microscopic examination. Indicated air speed, altitude, rate of climb, magnetic heading, temperature, and relative humidity are continuously measured. All variables are sequentially recorded on a 7-track, 200 bit per second, 27-channel, magnetic tape data logging system. Measured variables are recorded once each 0.3 to 0.8 sec—equivalent to 33-100 ft of traversedepending upon the number of variables recorded (i.e., between 9 and 27) when flying at 90 mph. Tape data are reduced directly by IBM 360 computer to a digital print-out or from tape to an X-Y analog plot.     

The Use of Aircraft in Air Pollution Research

An instrumented single engine aircraft is being used to characterize plumes from large emission sources. By cross sectioning these plumes at a number of points we hope to describe the character and concentration of pollution as it ages and travels downwind under known meteorological conditions. This paper reports experimental work thus far completed on aerosol measurement. Flights have been made through plumes from a large coal-fired power station, forest fires, and a gravel plant. Particle counts in various size classifications were made with a Bausch and Lomb 40–1 Dust Counter which was carried in the aircraft. Selected meteorological parameters were recorded. Results show the aerosol concentrations in various size classifications that are found at successive distances downwind from these sources for distances up to 32 miles. Background aerosol concentrations are also reported, and variations in these can be noted with respect to time, location and altitude.     

Agricultural Non-Point Source Pollution in China: Causes and Mitigation Measures

Non-point source (NPS) pollution has been increasingly serious in China since the 1990s. The increases of agricultural NPS pollution in China is evaluated for the period 2000-2008 by surveying the literature on water and soil pollution from fertilizers and pesticides, and assessing the surplus nitrogen balance within provinces. The main causes for NPS pollution were excessive inputs of nitrogen fertilizer and pesticides, which were partly the result of the inadequate agricultural extension services and the rapid expansion of intensive livestock production with little of waste management. The annual application of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides in China increased by 50.7 and 119.7%, respectively, during 1991-2008. The mitigation measures to reduce NPS pollution include: correct distortion in fertilizer prices; improve incentives for the recycling of organic manure; provide farmers with better information on the sound use of agro-chemicals; and tighten the regulations and national standards on organic waste disposal and pesticides use.     

Mathematical Model for Pollution Source Identification in Rivers

Release of pollution into rivers is required to be handled with special consideration to environmental standards. For this purpose, it is essential to specify the contribution of each pollution source in contamination of water resources. In this study, a mathematical model is proposed for determining locations and concentration release histories of polluting point sources using measured downstream river concentrations via an inverse problem framework. The inverse solution is based on the integral equation obtained from applying the Green's function method on the one-dimensional advection-dispersion contaminant transport equation. Discretization of this integral equation results in a linear, over-determined and ill-posed system of algebraic equations that are solved by using the Tikhonov regularization method. Several examples and some real field data are investigated to illustrate the abilities of the proposed model. Results imply that the proposed method is effective and can identify the pollution sources in rivers with acceptable accuracy.     

Uncertainty in Nonpoint Source Pollution Models and Associated Risks

The usefulness of water quality simulation models for environmental management is explored with a focus on prediction uncertainty. The specific objective is to demonstrate how the usability of a flow and transport model (here: MACRO) can be enhanced by developing and analyzing its output probability distributions based on input variability. This infiltration-based model was designed to investigate preferential flow effects on pollutant transport. A statistical sensitivity analysis is used to identify the most uncertain input parameters based on model outputs. Probability distribution functions of input variables were determined based on field-measured data obtained under alternative tillage treatments. Uncertainty of model outputs is investigated using a Latin hypercube sampling scheme (LHS) with restricted pairing for model input sampling. Probability density functions (pdfs) are constructed for water flow rate, atrazine leaching rate, total accumulated leaching, and atrazine concentration in percolation water. Results indicate that consideration of input parameter uncertainty produces a 20% higher mean flow rate along with two to three times larger atrazine leaching rate, accumulated leachate, and concentration than that obtained using mean input parameters. Uncertainty in predicted flow rate is small but that in solute transport is an order of magnitude larger than that of corresponding input parameters. Macropore flow is observed to contribute to the variability of atrazine transport results. Overall, the analysis provides a quantification of prediction uncertainty that is found to enhance a user's ability to assess risk levels associated with model predictions.     

Uncertainty in Nonpoint Source Pollution Models and Associated Risks

The usefulness of water quality simulation models for environmental management is explored with a focus on prediction uncertainty. The specific objective is to demonstrate how the usability of a flow and transport model (here: MACRO) can be enhanced by developing and analyzing its output probability distributions based on input variability. This infiltration-based model was designed to investigate preferential flow effects on pollutant transport. A statistical sensitivity analysis is used to identify the most uncertain input parameters based on model outputs. Probability distribution functions of input variables were determined based on field-measured data obtained under alternative tillage treatments. Uncertainty of model outputs is investigated using a Latin hypercube sampling scheme (LHS) with restricted pairing for model input sampling. Probability density functions (pdfs) are constructed for water flow rate, atrazine leaching rate, total accumulated leaching, and atrazine concentration in percolation water. Results indicate that consideration of input parameter uncertainty produces a 20% higher mean flow rate along with two to three times larger atrazine leaching rate, accumulated leachate, and concentration than that obtained using mean input parameters. Uncertainty in predicted flow rate is small but that in solute transport is an order of magnitude larger than that of corresponding input parameters. Macropore flow is observed to contribute to the variability of atrazine transport results. Overall, the analysis provides a quantification of prediction uncertainty that is found to enhance a user's ability to assess risk levels associated with model predictions.     

Estimate of Contribution of Jet Aircraft Operations To Trace Element Concentration at or near Airports

Samples of ASTM type A jet fuel were analyzed for trace element content by instrumental neutron activation techniques. Forty-nine elements were sought. Only ten, aluminum, gold, indium, lanthanum, titanium, vanadium, barium, dysprosium, tellurium, and uranium, were observed at levels above the detection limits encountered; of these only aluminum, titanium, and barium were present at concentrations greater than 0.1 ppm. Estimates of exhaust gas. concentrations are made, and the ambient contribution at or near airports is calculated by using the Los Angeles International Airport dispersion model. It is shown that the ambient contribution is about an order of magnitude below typical urban levels for virtually all elements sought.     

光合细菌在农业面源污染控制方面的应用

针对国内外面源污染日趋严重的现状,提出了利用光合细菌既可有效控制农业面源污染,又能促进生态农业发展.故对光合细菌在种植业、畜禽养殖业、水产养殖业等产生的面源污染控制中的作用机理和应用现状进行了综述.     

农村生活污染源的调查与数据分析

以某镇农村生活污染源调查为例,介绍一种切实可行的调查方式。用统计分析的方法,分析该农村生活污水产生量和主要去向,以及生活垃圾产生量、基本组成和主要去向,并对该农村生活污染源现状作了评价。     

南京市污染源普查的质控工作探讨

对南京市在污染源普查过程中采取的质控措施进行了探讨,分析出普查质控工作的不足,并提出了几点建议。为提高以后普查的质量拓宽思路。     

Industrial Zoning as a Means of Controlling Area Source Air Pollution

The simple ATDL urban dispersion model Is based on the formula Xo(g/m³) = CO(g/m²s)/U(m/s). The diurnal variation of the stability factor C, which can be thought of as the width of the urban area divided by the vertical dispersion of the pollution cloud, has not before been satisfactorily estimated. Using observed diurnal variations of CO concentrations and traffic frequencies reported by DeMarrais of the EPA for many stations in the states of Maryland, New Jersey, and Colorado, and using wind data from these states, hourly values of C - XoU/Q were calculated. The ratio of C to the daily average C is found to equal about 2.5 at 4 a.m., drops to about 0.5 by 8 a.m., and remains at 0.5 until about 6 p.m.., when it starts to climb slowly again. Application of this new stability factor to independent CO data from Los Angeles yields correlations between measured and predicted concentrations of about 0.7.     

Measuring the Organic Carbon Content of Source Emissions for Air Pollution Control

Measuring emissions of organic materials from such sources as paint bake ovens, degreas-ing operations, and printing processes is a necessy part of a control program for solvents. Over the intervening years since 1966 when Los Angeles first enacted its solvent Rule 66, a considerable number of tests have been performed and the present test method has gone through a period of experience and improvement. A sample is collected from a stack or vent in a freeze-out trap cooled with dry ice followed by an evacuated 8-liter tank. Analysis is done by a system of gas chromatography and catalytic combustion to yield the total organic carbon content. Representative industrial emission analysis results, which demonstrate the practical applicability of the system, are shown.     

污染源普查档案应用于环境管理的思考

简述了建立污染源普查档案的关键环节,对污染源普查档案的运用与环境管理进行了认真的思考,并提出了现实性的建议。     

Air Pollution In Pittsburgh: A Historical Perspective

Sources and concentrations of indoor air pollutants and aeroallergens were evaluated in the arid Southwest community of Tucson, Arizona. One major purpose was to appraise the interaction of indoor and outdoor human exposures. A rough time budget study showed that 74% of adults spent 75% or more of their time in some indoor environment. Outdoor and indoor concentrations of TSP, RSP, CO, O₃ and aeroallergens were measured for 41 detached dwellings. Small area and basin monitoring occurred for TSP, CO, NO₂, O₃ and aeroallergens; ambient TSP frequently exceeds NAAQS and both CO and O3 do occasionally. Indoor TSP and RSP were lower than outdoors and were of a different composition. Outdoor infiltration falls rapidly for particles and pollen, related to distance Indoors. CO was low and O₃ was very low indoors. TSP and RSP correlated significantly with tobacco smoking and CO correlated with gas stove usage. Temperature varied minimally indoors and relative humidity indoors was similar to outdoor readings In this climate. It was concluded that better particle characterization and better estimates of total exposure are required.