Aktive Stoffe als Handlungsoption gegen die Verschleppung von Organismen durch Seeschiffe?

Background and Scope

The marine shipping lanes have become the most important path for the invasion of foreign aquatic organisms. The increasing global trade results in an increase in the number of marine vessels. Without any protective measures, with every ship carrying foreign organisms the risk of biological invasions will rise.

Results

The International Martime Organization (IMO) of the United Nations developed a convention to reduce the transfer of organisms with ballast water. After the entry-into-force of this convention the fleet of the world has to be equipped with effective ballast water management technology before 2016. This article discusses potential options for action. To comply with the limit values of the ballast water convention, the current state of the art demands the use of active substances. Any decision on the approval of active substances used for ballast water treatment and the environmental impact assessment lies with the IMO. Proposed to day are UV-radiation, active chlorine, active oxygen, the creation of biocides through electrolysis and a change in gases contained in the ballast water. The technologies and the potential risks are presented.

Conclusions

Despite the introduction of an approval procedure by IMO any reliable assessment of the real risks involved in the use of biocides is impossible, as the risk assessment approaches have still to be developed. On the regulatory level, the main focus in data requirements for the risk assessment is on a comprehensive testing of the toxic potential of the biocides proposed. Strategies for the identification and evaluation of the chemical resulting from the treatment of limnic, marine and brackish water are not fully developed. An integrating assessment of risks involved in the introduction of foreign organisms versus the toxic effects of the substances used or created during treatment is still missing.     

Untersuchungen zur Eignung von Neutralsalzen als Referenzmittel bei der mikrobiologisch-ökotoxikologischen Bewertung von Pflanzenschutzmitteln im Boden

Goal and Scope

The information value of microbiologicalecotoxicological investigations of pesticides in soil increases if reference compounds with known biocidal effects are included. But those reference compounds used until now often are of remarkable environmental and human toxicity and therefore are difficult to handle. Inorganic neutral salts sometimes were discussed as alternatives, but their suitability needs to be tested before.

Methods

For laboratory experiments some microbial activities in soil were selected whose effects had been proved in several microbiological-ecotoxicological investigations. They include the mineralization of carbon and nitrogen (+ nitrification) as well as the biomass-related parameters dehydrogenase activity and substrate-induced short-term respiration. Several agricultural soils were used to confirm the results.     

Morphologische Parameter als Biomarker in der Ökotoxikologie – natürliche und schadstoffinduzierte Variabilität

Background Ecotoxicology utilizes alterations of biological parameters of organisms as biomarkers of toxic exposure or effects. In environmental monitoring, biomarkers function as sensitive indicators of chemical pollution or as early warning signal of late effects Aim The pre-requisite for using a biological parameter as biomarker is the ability to unequivocally distinguish between the natural or normal and the induced or abnormal expression of the marker. This article discusses problems in discriminating between the normal and induce state, using morphological biomarkers as an example. Results and Discussion Morphological and/or anatomical parameters are intuitively considered to be rather invariable. This article shows for the example of gonad morphology of fish that this expectation is not always correct, but that morphological markers may display pronounced baseline variability. The reasons for this variability are often not understood. This is limiting the utility and interpretation of the biomarker response, in particular when organisms are not only exposed to chemical but to multiple stressors. Outlook The problem of discriminating between natural and induced variability of biomarkers is of particular relevance in low dose exposure scenarios, when stressors other than toxic chemicals may confound the toxicant-induced changes of the biomarker status. To better handle this problem and to be able to distinguish between adaptive and adverse changes, ecotoxicology has to set out for improved understanding of the phenotypic plasticity of organisms and genotypes,     

Müllverbrennungs-Schlacke als Baumaterial

In order to determine the possible depreciation of its quality as a building material, solid waste residues from a municipal solid waste incinerator were analysed in a case study for its contents of various organic fractions with special emphasis on fractions which can be utilised by microbes as carbon sources. Furthermore, microbial concentrations in ashes, microbial fermentation and pH dependent viability of soil microbes in extracts of ashes were determined. Results demonstrate a low content of organic fractions in the solid waste, especially of those which can serve as C-sources for soil microbes. Microbial concentrations and rates of fermation in the ash are extremely low. The former is not only limited by the availability of suitable C-sources, but also by the alkaline pH of and the heavy metal concentration in the soil solution. Model calculations confirm that the maximal possible gas formation is extremely low and therefore does not diminish the quality of the incinerator ash as a potential building material.     

Antibiotika als Umweltkontaminanten — Effekte auf Bodenbakterien

Goal and scope

Among the human and veterinary pharmaceuticals, antibiotics form an important group. Recent research addressed the environmental ‘side effects’ of antibiotics. Evidence for environmental effects of antibiotics has for example been found for the respiratory activity of soil microorganisms. In the present contribution, results of studies on the ecotoxicology of antibiotics that are based on the utilization of carbon substrates in so-called Biolog plates are summarized.

Methods, Results and Conclusions

The method of pollution-induced community tolerance (PICT) takes centre stage. PICT is based on the changes in community composition of environmental communities brought about by a toxicant, which lead to an overall increase in community tolerance to this toxicant. The suitability of such an increase in community tolerance as ecotoxicological endpoint had been the subject of several experiments. It was shown that effect testing of antibiotics requires supplementation of the communities with nutrients, and that the PICT method reveals antibiotic effects with a high specificity. In an application of PICT, effects of three classes of antibacterial compounds were investigated. Dose-response relationships were obtained for all substances, and effect concentrations were partly in the range of expected environmental concentrations. The possible risks of antibiotic use for an increase in the occurrence of antibiotic resistance genes in the environment are also touched upon, including the extent of natural resistance.

Outlook

Due to its specificity, the PICT method has shown to be a suitable ecotoxicological assay. Due to possible effects of tetracyclines on the structure of the soil microbial community, it is advised to use veterinary antibiotics with caution. The risks of an increase in the occurrence of antibiotic resistance in the environment should be investigated in more detail.     

Im Spiegel des Klimawandels – Phosphor und Stickstoff in Böden Schleswig-Holsteins bei steigenden Lufttemperaturen

Background, aim, and scope The ecological effects of the global climate change differ regionally. Due to the ecological significance of soils in terrestrial ecosystems the aim of this study on behalf of the State Agency for Nature and Environment of Schleswig-Holstein was to calculate the output of nitrogen and phosphate from soils in Schleswig-Holstein (Germany) given the current and predicted air temperatures. Methods The calculations were performed by the Water and Substance Modelling System (WASMOD). This complex simulation tool can be used for modelling the fluxes of water and dissolved substances through single soil columns or for fields and watersheds. In this study the calculations rely on data collected from several sources such as agricultural statistics, the German Weather Service DWD, results from the high resolution regional climate model REMO as well as from the German soil inventory “Reichsbodenschätzung”. The WASMOD calculations were performed for representative combinations of ecological characteristics such as soil texture, distance to the ground water table, drainage, cultivation, and climate. The computations refer to three periods: 1975 to 2004 according to the measurements of two meteorological stations (DWD), and in terms of REMO modelling 1971 to 2000 (reference), and 2071 to 2100 according to the IPCC scenarios B1 and A1B. Results The WASMOD results encompass precipitation, interception, evaporation, seepage water, drainage, nitrogen balances (input, mineralisation, denitrification, nitrification, output, volatilisation, and drainage), and phosphate balances (input, mineralisation, output, and percentage of organic, sorbed, dissolved and immobile P). According to the combinations of influencing factors the computed results vary spatially: Given the scenarios B1 and A1B the evaporation is expected to increase. Compared to the reference period the B1 seepage will be high and associated with high precipitation. Nevertheless, due to increasing evaporation A1B is similar to the reference period despite higher precipitation. The B1 scenario showed the highest outputs of N and P. The results for A1B were found to be very similar with those for the reference period. The N output from fields significantly increase in B1. The highest outputs were estimated for intensively grazed feedlots. For B1 the highest P outputs were computed whereas the A1B estimations were lower than the results referring to the reference period. In terms of the input/output ratio the N output from sandy soils will be higher than those from loamy soils while the contrary holds true for the absolute discharge. These findings will vary spatially with the distance of the soil surface from the groundwater table. The expected output by denitrification is negligible whereas from loamy soils such N losses can account for 41?kg/ha. The mineralisation was expected at maximum in A1B. Compared with the reference period B1 will have higher air temperatures and more precipitation but less droughts. Consequently, for these sites reduced mineralisation was estimated. Draining will reduce the N and P output from fields and enhance the P discharge from grassland, respectively. Discussion The WASMOD modelling results could not be compared to findings of similar studies because such could not be investigated. Thus, the discussion had to focus on the data and methods used for the computations, and the results could not be validated empirically. Nevertheless, from many case studies, ecosystem research and environmental monitoring projects which have been published during the last 20 years the computations of this investigation could be classified as, at least, plausible. A major challenge of further investigations will be the regionalisation if the WASMOD results by the combination of high resolution soil data with such on plant phenology. Conclusions Basic research as for instance long-term ecosystem research should be regarded as essential precondition for the development of prognostic models as presented by the example of WASMOD. Such research could be proved as worthwhile in face of problems as represented in this study. Regarding the global change related risk of vector-associated diseases the predictive power of ecological models must be broadened and refined. Recommendations and perspectives Ecosystem research and environmental epidemiology should be coordinated much closer. This research must be attended by a professional documentation of research and monitoring results by use of metadata-based and GIS-based networking of local databases. The approach of the investigation presented should be applied to representative ecoregions of Germany. To reach this, modelling areas will be selected in terms of an ecological land classification and extensive data sets from meteorological and phenological monitoring networks. Additionally, the approach will be extended by the predictive mapping of vector-associated diseases.     

Abschätzung der Reduzierung der Luftschadstoffkonzentrationen

The UN ECE Göteborg Protocol from 1. December 1999 (c.f.http://www.unece.org und SENGER, 2000) to abate acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone demands distinct reductions of air pollutants in different countries. In this contribution the reduction of different components of air pollutants between the years 1990 and 2010 were estimated for the German federal states of Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia. The estimated reduction for NO_x, SO₂ and NM-VOC, and CO meet the demands set up by the UN ECE Göteborg Protocol. For O₃ a reduction could only be predicted for rural areas and, for CO₂, a steady increase in its global concentration has to be assumed.     

Eier der Flußseeschwalbe (Sterna hirundo) als Indikator für die aktuelle Belastung von Rhein, Weser und Elbe mit Umweltchemikalien

In 1995, common tern (Sterna hirundo) eggs from the big German rivers, the Rhine, Weser and Elbe were collected to study the contamination with organochlorines and mercury. We found distinct differences between the rivers: common tern eggs from the Rhine had higher concentrations of PCBs and HCHs, while eggs from the Elbe had higher residues of DDT, HCB and mercury. Also toxic PCB congeners had higher residue levels in the Rhine. Considering all organochlorines, samples from the Rhine also had the highest concentrations, while those from the Elbe were the lowest. With 5.7 μg×g^?1 fresh weight, the ΖCBs had a level endangering breeding success. Fish eating birds should be used as indicators of the contamination of the rivers with environmental chemicals and should be included in monitoring programmes.     

Die Organisation der Früherkennung von Umweltproblemen im Rahmen der wissenschaftlichen Beratung der Umweltpolitik

This study is based on the theses that

1. early diagnosis is indispensable for the management of environmental problems in the context of precautionary policy, which have the character of a “creeping disaster” and that
2. the public must play the active role that is adequate within a democratic society.

In the context of the study, three existing advisory committees for environmental policy as well as two concepts which have not been put into effect are investigated. In the second part of the study the concepts and the working method of the three existing advisory committees are portrayed: the Council of Experts for Environmental Questions (SRU), the German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU), and the Office of Technology Assessment of the Federal Parliament (TAB). In part I, the concept of the Picht commission from 1972, which has never been implemented in this form was introduced. Part III deals with the critique of these committees and with an alternative concept of early diagnosis which has not yet been put into effect. In part IV, the work of the oldest of the committees, the SRU, is examined with respect to the three most important environmental problems of the last 15 years.     

Die organisation der Früherkennung von Umweltproblemen im Rahmen der wissenschaftlichen Beratung der Umweltpolitik

This study is based on the theses that

1. early diagnosis is indispensable in the context of precautionary policy for the management of environmental problems which have the character of a “creeping disaster”, and that
2. the public must play the active role that is adequate within a democratic society.

In the context of the study, three existing advisory committees for environmental policy as well as two concepts which have not been put into effect are investigated. The third part deals with the critique of these committees and an alternative concept of early diagnosis “General Ecological Monitoring” which has not yet been put into effect. In part I, the concept of the Picht commission from 1972, which has never been realized in this form has been introduced. In part II, the concepts and the working method of the three existing advisory committees (SRU, WBGU, TAB) have been presented. In part IV, the work of the oldest of the committees, the SRU, is examined with respect to the three most important environmental problems of the last 15 years.     

Die Organisation der Früherkennung von Umweltproblemen im Rahmen der wissenschaftlichen Beratung der Umweltpolitik

This study is based on the theses that

1. early diagnosis is indispensable in the context of precautionary policy for the management of environmental problems, which have the character of a “creeping disaster”; and that
2. the public must play the active role that is adequate within a democratic society. In the context of the study, three existing advisory committees for environmental policy as well as two concepts which have not been put into effect are investigated.

In the first part presented here, the concept of the Picht commission from 1972, which has never been realized in this form is introduced. In part II, the concepts and the working method of the three existing advisory committees (SRU, WBGU, TAB) are presented. Part III deals with the critique of these committees and an alternative concept of early diagnosis which has not yet been put into effect. In part IV, the work of the oldest of the committees, the SRU, is examined with respect to the three most important environmental problems of the last 15 years.     

Die Organisation der Früherkennung von Umweltproblemen im Rahmen der wissenschaftlichen Beratung der Umweltpolitik

This study is based on the theses that

1. early diagnosis is indispensable in the context of precautionary policy for the management of environmental problems which have the character of a “creeping disaster” and that
2. the public must play the active role that is adequate within a democratic society. In the context of the study, three existing advisory committees for environmental policy as well as two concepts which have not been put into effect are investigated.

In the fourth part the work of the oldest of the committees, the SRU, is examined with respect to the three most important environmental problems of the last 15 years. In part I, the concept of the Picht commission from 1972, which has never been realized in this form, was introduced. In part II, the concepts and the working method of the three existing advisory committees (SRU, WBGU, TAB) were presented. Part III deals with the critique of these committees and an alternative concept of early diagnosis which has not yet been put into effect.     

Klimawandel und Bachforellenrückgang – gibt es einen Zusammenhang? Resultate aus der Schweiz

Background, aim, and scope In response to a 60?% decrease in brown trout catch between 1980 and 2000, a Swiss-wide search was initiated to investigate possible causes. The project, named ‘Fischnetz’ (fishing net), investigated 12 hypotheses. One of those suggested a detrimental effect of global climate change. I report here which parameters changed and what the possible consequences for native brown trout are. Materials and methods The literature is critically analysed and results are synthesised to show the interactions between different climatic factors and their effects on fish. Results In the last 25 years, an increase in temperature by approximately 1?°C was indicated in the rivers of Switzerland. This is associated with an earlier emergence of trout from the gravel. Warming results in an upward shift of the preferred thermal habitats. Furthermore, an increase in the clinical outbreak of the Proliferative Kidney Disease PKD (for which a temperature of 15?°C for more than 2–4 weeks is necessary) can be recorded. The precipitation pattern changed and an intensification of high floods in winter results in higher erosion. This can in turn lead to an increased level of fine sediments which may affect health of juvenile brown trout and is assumed to reduce reproduction success. Discussion The consequences of climate change are discussed in concert with other anthropogenic factors. Storage reservoirs, as well as water withdrawal (and return of heated water, respectively) affect temperature profiles and sediment load. Fragmentation, channelization and straightening of rivers accelerate clogging and restrain fish from upward migration and evacuation to more suitable habitats. Conclusions With increasing temperatures a downsizing of habitats of cold-water fish species, as well as an increase of diseases which are temperature sensitive, is assumed. Recommendations and perspectives Mitigation measures which lead to a morphological improvement of river systems, such as river widening and improvement of the connectivity between river stretches and their tributaries, as well as improving river bank vegetation, are recommended.     

Medikamentenentsorgung in privaten Haushalten: Ein Faktor bei der Gewässerbelastung mit Arzneimittelwirkstoffen?

Background

Residues of pharmaceuticals are meanwhile detected widely in the aquatic environment. Waste water treatment plants are the main route of entry: after intake the agents or their metabolites are excreted predominantly via urine into the sewage. Largely unknown is, however, if the improper disposal of unused medicines via domestic sanitary devices (toilet or sink) contributes to the measured concentrations in the environment. Aim of this investigation was to clarify to what extent consumers in Germany dispose of unused medicines directly via domestic sewage. In July and August 2006 a representative survey of the population with 2.000 interviewees was performed for this purpose.

Results

The analysis of the survey shows that the disposal of unused medicines via domestic sewage takes place on relevant scales: approx. 16% of the population dispose at least occasionally of unused or expired tablets in the toilet whereas 43% proceed alike with liquid drugs (toilet or sink).

Discussion

A possible reason for this disposal behaviour is the widely inconsistent waste disposal communication by the municipalities and the federal states. The resulting uncertainty about the correct way to dispose of unused medicines gains in importance in the context of the high recycling willingness of the (German) population: appropriate disposal options for drug residues (tablets or liquids) arising from waste separation are often not realised.

Conclusions

Quantitative assessments on the basis of the collected data demonstrate that the established frequency of direct disposal of unused medicines via domestic sewage can partly contribute significantly to the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. Crucial parameters are here the excretion rate of the active pharmaceutical ingredient considered and the actual amount of medication waste.

Recommendations

Based on the inquiry results, measures that lead to a more adequate handling of pharmaceutical waste disposal are demanded. The establishment of a consistent and binding disposal standard for unused medicines via return in pharmacies is recommended. This measure needs to be accompanied by a simplification of the established take back systems which partly cause high time and effort for pharmacies.     

Identifikation der kfz-bürtigen Schadstoffbelastung mit Hilfe der Verhältnisse der stabilen Isotope von Kohlenstoff und Schwefel

Different sources of traffic immissions (tyres, soot, oil, asphalt, plastic, paint) were analysed for stable carbon and sulphur isotope ratios. The aim of this study is to investigate whether these isotope ratios can be used to evaluate the environmental impact of traffic immitted harmful substances in roadside soils. The δ¹³C values of technical materials are between -30‰ and -18‰ (PDB). They can be distinguished by their δ¹³C value because of specific production methods. The δ¹³C value of asphalt is between -23 and -18‰, soot shows values from -27 to-22‰ Moreover, soot of different fuel have different carbon isotope ratios. Plastic, paint and oil have similar δ¹³C from -30 to -27‰ Carbon isotope ratios of automobile tyres are around -26‰ Traffic impact on the carbon isotope composition is reflected in δ¹³C values of various carbon spezies found in street sediments and road side soils. These δ¹³C values correlate to concentrations of lead and platinum. Although δ³⁴S values of technical materials are between -6 and +8‰ it was not possible to characterise samples according to their Sulphur isotopic compostion.     

Konsonanz oder Dissonanz – die Diskussionslage der Umweltrisikobewertung von Industriechemikalien, gesehen aus der Sicht eines Vertreters der chemischen Industrie

This paper reflects various personal experiences of the author over the last years, concerning ecotoxicological test development and regulatory-type evaluations of the environmental risk assessment of high production volume chemicals.