Differential accumulation of mercury and other trace metals in the food web components of a reservoir impacted by a chlor-alkali plant (Flix, Ebro River, Spain): Implications for biomonitoring

Comparative studies of biomonitors of trace metal contamination are relatively scarce. We took advantage of a point source pollution in a reservoir (Flix, Spain) to compare trace metal (Hg, Pb, Cd, Se, As, Zn, Cu, Cr) bioaccumulation patterns among 16 food web components. Our results indicate that most organisms are suitable for Hg biomonitoring, whereas other metals are better monitored by only some of them. Biofilms and zebra mussel were the organisms with larger and more diverse biomonitoring capacity. However, we show that using groups of biomonitors increase the scope and strengths of the conclusions and specific goals can be better addressed. We conclude providing an overview of the strengths and weaknesses of the main organisms considered for biomonitoring trace metals in rivers and reservoirs.     

Trace elements in two marine fish cultured in fish cages in Fujian province, China

Two cultured marine fish, the Japanese seabass (Lateolabrax japonicus) and red seabream (Pagrus major) were collected from eight fish cage sites along the coast of Fujian province in China. The concentrations of Ag, As, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Se, and Zn in their muscle, stomach and liver tissue were quantified. The risk of these trace elements to humans through fish consumption was then assessed. The highest concentrations of As, Cd, Se and Zn in fish feed from fish cages were found in Dongshan Station. Moreover, the As levels in the muscles of both species at all sites were generally higher than China's national standard (>1.0 μg/g). Trace element concentrations in two marine fish followed the order of livers > stomachs > muscles. Although the As levels in two marine caged fish exceeded the permissible standards, the estimated daily intake of As did not exceed the reference dose guideline established by US EPA. For other trace elements examined in this study, their concentrations did not exceed the permissible concentrations of the international standards.     

Leaf accumulation of trace elements and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Quercus ilex L

Quercus ilex L. leaves were collected four times in one year at six urban sites and one remote area in order to determine trace element and PAH accumulation through concomitant analyses of unwashed and water-washed leaves. Both unwashed and washed leaves showed the highest amounts of trace elements and PAHs in the urban area. Unwashed leaves showed greater differences between urban and remote areas and among the urban sites than washed leaves for trace element and PAH concentrations. Water-washing resulted in a significant (P<0.001) decrease in leaf concentrations of Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, V and Zn. By contrast, Cd and total PAH concentrations showed no differences between unwashed and washed leaves.     

Physiological adaptations in the lichens Peltigera rufescens and Cladina arbuscula var. mitis, and the moss Racomitrium lanuginosum to copper-rich substrate

Two lichen species (Peltigera rufescens and Cladina arbuscula subsp. mitis) and one moss species (Racomitrium lanuginosum) growing on a copper mine heaps (probably 200–300 yr old) in the village of Špania dolina (Slovak Republic) were assessed for selected physiological parameters, including composition of assimilation pigments, chlorophyll a fluorescence, soluble proteins and free amino acid content. The lichen C. arbuscula subsp. mitis was collected also at a control locality where total copper concentration in the soil was approximately 3% that of the waste heaps. Concentrations of Al, Co, Cu, Ni, Sb and Zn were highest in thalli of Peltigera, while the moss Racomitrium contained the highest content of Fe and Pb. Thalli of Cladina contained less metals than the cyanolichen Peltigera, and except for Zn metal concentrations in Cladina from the control locality were lower than in thalli of the same species from copper mine heaps. Regardless of the species or locality, the composition of assimilation pigments and chlorophyll a fluorescence showed that the tested lichens and moss were in good physiological condition and adapted to increased copper levels in the soil. There were significantly different amounts of total free amino acids in Peltigera, Cladina and Racomitrium from the Cu-polluted field. However, differences in amount of free amino acids in control, as well as Cu-polluted thalli of Cladina were less pronounced.     

Trace elements and stable isotopes (delta13C and delta15N) in shallow and deep-water organisms from the East China Sea

Trace elements (22) and stable isotope ratios (δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C) were analyzed in marine organisms from shallow (SW) and deep-water (DW) of the East China Sea to understand biomagnification and prey source of trace elements. In the benthic marine organisms from DW, δ¹⁵N values were negatively correlated with Ba, Cu, Ag, Mo, Sr, As, and Co concentrations. This may be due to the specific accumulation in lower trophic animals and/or the biodilution through the food web in DW. Relationships between δ¹⁵N and concentrations of Co, Cr, Bi, and Tl in fish and Ag, Bi, V, Hg, and Tl in crustaceans showed positive correlations, suggesting that trophic position was affecting the concentrations of those elements in phyla, with higher trophic animals retaining higher concentrations than the lower trophic animals. Positive correlations between δ¹³C and Rb were observed in marine organisms. Therefore, Rb may be a possible substitute of δ¹³C as tracer of prey source in the East China Sea although further investigation is required.     

Trace elements, organochlorines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, and furans in lesser scaup wintering on the Indiana Harbor Canal

During the winter of 1993-94, male lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) were collected on the heavily polluted Indiana Harbor Canal (IHC), East Chicago, IN, USA, and examined for tissue contaminant levels. Lesser scaup collected on the IHC had higher concentrations of cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), selenium (Se), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), selected organchlorine pesticides, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and aliphatic hydrocarbons than reference birds. Of the scaup collected on the IHC, 44% had Cd concentrations in the liver considered above background for freshwater waterfowl (>3 microg/g dry wt.), 50% had Se concentrations in the liver above a level possibly harmful to the health of young and adult birds (>33 microg/g dry wt.), and 88% of the scaup carcasses exceeded the PCB human consumption guidelines for edible poultry in the USA (>3.0 microg/g lipid wt.). The ratio of pristane:n-heptadecane concentrations in 47% of lesser scaup collected on IHC was elevated above 1.0, which is indicative of chronic exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons.     

Temporal trends (1990-2000) in the concentration of cadmium, lead and mercury in mosses across Europe

The European heavy metals in mosses survey provides data on the concentration of 10 heavy metals in naturally growing mosses. The survey has been repeated at five-yearly intervals and in this paper we report on the temporal trends in the concentration of cadmium, lead and mercury between 1990 and 2000. Metal- and country-specific temporal trends were observed. In general, the concentration of lead and cadmium in mosses decreased between 1990 and 2000; the decline was higher for lead than cadmium. For mercury not enough data were available to establish temporal trends between 1990 and 1995, but between 1995 and 2000 the mercury concentration in mosses did not change across Europe. The observed temporal trends for the concentrations in mosses were similar to the trends reported for the modelled total deposition of cadmium, lead and mercury in Europe.     

Air quality assessment by tree bark biomonitoring in urban, industrial and rural environments of the Rhine Valley: PCDD/Fs, PCBs and trace metal evidence

Tree barks were used as biomonitors to evaluate past atmospheric pollution within and around the industrial zones of Strasbourg (France) and Kehl (Germany) in the Rhine Valley. The here estimated residence time for trace metals, PCBs and PCDD/Fs in tree bark is >10 years. Thus, all pollution observed by tree bark biomonitoring can be older than 10 years. The PCB baseline concentration (sum of seven PCB indicators (Σ₇PCB_ind)) determined on tree barks from a remote area in the Vosges mountains is 4 ng g⁻¹ and corresponds to 0.36 × 10⁻³ ng toxic equivalent (TEQ) g⁻¹ for the dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs). The northern Rhine harbor suffered especially from steel plant, waste incinerator and thermal power plant emissions. The polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran (PCDD/Fs) concentrations analyzed in tree barks from this industrial area range between 392 and 1420 ng kg⁻¹ dry-weight (dw) corresponding to 3.9 ng TEQ_PCDD/Fs kg⁻¹ to 17.8 ng TEQ_PCDD/Fs kg⁻¹, respectively. Highest PCDD/F values of 7.2 ng TEQ kg⁻¹ to 17.8 ng TEQ kg⁻¹ have been observed close to and at a distance of <2 km southwest of the chemical waste incinerator. However, very close to this incinerator lowest TEQ dioxin-like PCB (TEQ_DL-PCB) values of 0.006 ng TEQ g⁻¹ have been found. On the other hand close to and southwest and northeast of the steel plant the values are comparatively higher and range between 0.011 ng TEQ g⁻¹ and 0.026 ng TEQ g⁻¹. However, even stronger Σ₇PCB_ind enrichments have been observed at a few places in the city center of Kehl, where ΣDL-PCB values of up to 0.11 ng TEQ g⁻¹ have been detected. These enrichments, however, are the result of ancient pollutions since recent long-term measurements at the same sites indicate that the atmospheric PCB concentrations are close to baseline. Emissions from an old landfill of waste and/or great fires might have been the reasons of these PCB enrichments. Other urban environments of the cities of Kehl and Strasbourg show significantly lower Σ₇PCB_ind concentrations. They suffer especially from road and river traffic and have typically Σ₇PCB_ind concentrations ranging from 11 ng g⁻¹ to 29 ng g⁻¹. The PCB concentration of 29 ng g⁻¹ has been found in tree bark close to the railway station of Strasbourg. Nevertheless, the corresponding TEQ_DL-PCB are low and range between 0.2 × 10⁻³ ng TEQ g⁻¹ and 7 × 10⁻³ ng TEQ g⁻¹. Samples collected near road traffic are enriched in Fe, Sb, Sn and Pb. Cd enrichments were found close to almost all types of industries. Rural environments not far from industrial sites suffered from organic and inorganic pollution. In this case, TEQ_DL-PCB values may reach up to 58 × 10⁻³ ng TEQ g⁻¹ and the corresponding V, Cr, Co, Ni, and Cd concentrations are comparatively high.     

Active moss biomonitoring of trace elements with Sphagnum girgensohnii moss bags in relation to atmospheric bulk deposition in Belgrade, Serbia

Active biomonitoring with wet and dry moss bags was used to examine trace element atmospheric deposition in the urban area of Belgrade. The element accumulation capability of Sphagnum girgensohnii Russow was tested in relation to atmospheric bulk deposition. Moss bags were mounted for five 3-month periods (July 2005-October 2006) at three representative urban sites. For the same period monthly bulk atmospheric deposition samples were collected. The concentrations of Al, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, and Pb were determined by instrumental neutron activation analyses and atomic absorption spectrometry. Significant accumulation of most elements occurred in the exposed moss bags compared with the initial moss content. High correlations between the elements in moss and bulk deposits were found for V, Cu, As, and Ni. The enrichment factors of the elements for both types of monitor followed the same pattern at the corresponding sites.     

Long-term (1992-2004) record of lead, cadmium, and zinc air contamination in Warsaw, Poland: Determination by chemical analysis of moss bags and leaves of Crimean linden

Between 1992 and 2004, air contamination with lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and zinc (Zn) in Warsaw, Poland, was monitored annually with moss (Sphagnum fallax) bags on a network of 230 sites covering the entire city. During the study the highest contamination was near the Warszawa Steel Mill, northwestern Warsaw. Lead concentrations in moss bags decreased in time, while those of Cd and Zn did not show clear trends. Between 1994 and 2004, Pb, Cd, and Zn were also monitored in the Crimean linden (Tilia Euchlora) foliage along the main city avenue and in a northwestern warsaw park. Lead concentrations decreased more near the avenue than in the park, indicating that the phasing-out of leaded gasoline had a major effect on reduced Pb contamination in Warsaw. At the same time, foliar concentrations of Cd and Zn in both areas decreased much less.     

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in human milk: A biomonitoring study in rural areas of Flanders (Belgium)

To collect information on the concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the rural areas in Flanders (Belgium), 84 breastfeeding mothers were recruited in rural communities in East and West Flanders and Flemish Brabant in 2009-2010. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners, organochlorine pesticides, brominated flame retardants, perfluorinated compounds, polychlorinated dibenzodioxines and dibenzofurans, and dioxin-like PCBs were measured in individual milk samples and in a pooled milk sample, while some additional pollutants were only measured in the pooled sample. For most pollutants, the concentrations in this study were lower or comparable to the concentrations measured in the pooled Belgian sample of the WHO human milk study of 2006, except for the pesticides dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane DDT (+25% for ΣDDT and metabolites) and trans-nonachlor (+94%), and for the brominated flame retardant hexachlorocyclododecane HBCD (+153%). Perfluorinated compounds were for the first time determined in human milk samples from Belgium and the concentrations were comparable to those from other European countries. Also, interesting associations were found between the concentrations of POPs measured in human milk and personal characteristics as well as dietary habits of the study population. PFOS en PFOA concentrations were significantly higher in milk of primiparous participants compared to mothers who gave birth to their second child. Lower brominated PBDE congeners increased with increasing BMI of the mothers (p = 0.01 for BDE 47, p = 0.02 for BDE 99 and p = 0.02 for BDE 100). Participants consuming milk or dairy products daily had significant higher concentrations of ΣDDTs (p = 0.03) and oxychlordane (p = 0.047) in their human milk samples.     

Partitioning of Cd and Pb in the blood of European blackbirds (Turdus merula) from a smelter contaminated site and use for biomonitoring

Blood composition is commonly measured to assess exposure to and effects of metals on birds. In most of passerine species, only small volumes of blood may be sampled safely (<500 μL), which limit the measure of several markers of health status and chemical residues. Here, we documented the partitioning of Cd and Pb in the blood of European Blackbirds Turdus merula in order to propose usable relationships between whole blood concentrations (for which toxicological benchmarks exist) and those measured in the erythrocytes. Sixty-two blackbirds were trapped along a pollution gradient (smelter of Metaleurop Nord, Northern France). Blood was sampled and Cd and Pb concentrations were measured both in whole blood and in the erythrocytes only. Birds coming from the most contaminated sites exhibited high residues for both Cd and Pb. We assessed that 73% and 99% of Cd and Pb, respectively, were associated to erythrocytes. Strong linear relationships, that were not influenced by neither the age nor the sex, were established between whole blood residues and those of erythrocytes for Cd and Pb (adj-R² = 0.78 and 0.93, respectively). Present findings are promising to optimize the use of small blood samples in order to investigate several responses relative to wildlife health status.     

Factors affecting distribution and mobility of trace elements (Cu, Pb, Zn) in a perennial grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) in the Champagne region of France

Soil and Vitis vinifera L. (coarse and fine roots, leaves, berries) concentration and geochemical partitioning of Cu, Pb and Zn were determined in a contaminated calcareous Champagne plot to assess their mobility and transfer. Accumulation ratios in roots remained low (0.1-0.4 for Cu and Zn, <0.05 for Pb). Differences between elements resulted from vegetation uptake strategy and soil partitioning. Copper, significantly associated with the oxidisable fraction (27.8%), and Zn with the acid soluble fraction (33.3%), could be mobilised by rhizosphere acidification and oxidisation, unlike Pb, essentially contained in the reducible fraction (72.4%). Roots should not be considered as a whole since the more reactive fine roots showed higher accumulation ratios than coarse ones. More sensitive response of fine roots, lack of correlation between chemical extraction results and vegetation concentrations, and very limited translocation to aerial parts showed that fine root concentrations should be used when assessing bioavailability.     

Relationship between heavy metals pollution and genetic diversity in Mediterranean populations of the sandhopper Talitrus saltator (Montagu) (Crustacea, Amphipoda)

Trace metals are one of the groups of pollutants that reduce genetic variability in natural populations, causing the phenomenon known as “genetic erosion”. In this study we evaluate the relationship between trace metals contamination (Hg, Cd and Cu) and genetic variability, assessed using fluorescent Inter-Simple Sequence Repeats (fISSRs). We used eight populations of a well-established biomonitor of trace metals on sandy beaches: the amphipod Talitrus saltator. The trace metals analysis confirmed the ability of sandhoppers to accumulate Hg, Cd and Cu. Moreover, populations from sites with high Hg availability had the lowest values of genetic diversity. Our results validate the use of fISSR markers in genetic studies in sandhoppers and support the “genetic erosion” hypothesis by showing the negative influence of Hg contamination on sandhopper genetic diversity. Therefore, genetic variability assessed with fISSR markers could be successfully employed as a biomarker of Hg exposure.     

Exposure to trace elements of flamingos living in a biosphere reserve, the Camargue (France)

Recent research has shown that some adult flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus collected from the Camargue Biosphere Reserve had tissue metal concentrations considerably higher than the average for this species. As the range of these birds is large, the origin of the contamination was unknown. Blood and feather samples from nestling flamingos were therefore analysed for trace metals to determine the presence and origin of local contamination. A comparison of elemental concentration in the feathers of nestling and adult flamingos revealed higher concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb and Se in adults, and higher concentrations of Zn in juveniles. This was attributed to increased exposure to atmospheric pollutants of adults, and either differences in Zn requirements and metabolism between adults and juveniles, or a local contamination of the juveniles' food supply by Zn. Concentrations of Zn in serum were also very elevated compared with human standards. Cd, Cu, Zn and Se concentrations were analysed in outer (O) and inner (I) barbs (i.e. barbs that are, respectively, exposed or not exposed to external deposits) of greater coverts of nestling flamingos. A comparison of elemental concentrations in these two feather components indicates a local atmospheric contamination by Cd, Cu and Pb.     

Sources and historical record of tin and butyl-tin species in a Mediterranean bay (Toulon Bay,France)

Concentrations of inorganic tin (Sn_inorg), tributyltin (TBT) and its degradation products dibutyltin (DBT) and monobutyltin (MBT) were measured in surface sediments and in two cores from the Toulon Bay, hosting the major French military harbour. Anticipating planned dredging, the aim of the present work is to map and evaluate for the first time the recent and historic contamination of these sediments by inorganic and organic Sn species derived from antifouling paints used for various naval domains including military, trade, tourism and leisure. Tin and butyl-Sn concentrations in the bay varied strongly (4 orders of magnitude), depending on the site, showing maximum values near the shipyards. The concentrations of total Sn (1.3–112 μg g^?1), TBT (<0.5–2,700 ng g^?1), DBT (<0.5–1,800 ng g^?1) and MBT (0.5–1,000 ng g^?1) generally decreased towards the open sea, i.e. as a function of both distance from the presumed main source and bottom currents. Progressive degradation state of the butyl-Sn species according to the same spatial scheme and the enrichment factors support the scenario of a strongly polluted bay with exportation of polluted sediment to the open Mediterranean. Low degradation and the historical records of butyl-Sn species in two ²¹⁰Pb-dated sediment cores, representative of the Northern Bay, are consistent with the relatively recent use of TBT by military shipyards and confirm maximum pollution during the 1970s, which will persist in the anoxic sediments for several centuries. The results show that (a) degradation kinetics of butyl-Sn species depend on environmental conditions, (b) the final degradation product Sn_inorgBT is by far the dominant species after 10–12 half-life periods and (c) using recent data to reliably assess former TBT contamination requires the use of a modified butyl-Sn degradation index BDI_mod. Resuspension of extremely contaminated subsurface sediments by the scheduled dredging will probably result in mobilization of important amounts of butyl-Sn species.     

Mass loads of dissolved and particulate mercury and other trace elements in the Mt. Amiata mining district,Southern Tuscany (Italy)

Total dissolved and particulate mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), and antimony (Sb) mass loads were estimated in different seasons (March and September 2011 and March 2012) in the Paglia River basin (PRB) (central Italy). The Paglia River drains the Mt. Amiata Hg district, one of the largest Hg-rich regions worldwide. Quantification of Hg, As, and Sb mass loads in this watershed allowed (1) identification of the contamination sources, (2) evaluation of the effects of Hg on the environment, and (3) determination of processes affecting Hg transport. The dominant source of Hg in the Paglia River is runoff from Hg mines in the Mt. Amiata region. The maximum Hg mass load was found to be related to runoff from the inactive Abbadia San Salvatore Mine (ASSM), and up to 30 g day^?1 of Hg, dominantly in the particulate form, was transported both in high and low flow conditions in 2011. In addition, enrichment factors (EFs) calculated for suspended particulate matter (SPM) were similar in different seasons indicating that water discharge controls the quantities of Hg transported in the PRB, and considerable Hg was transported in all seasons studied. Overall, as much as 11 kg of Hg are discharged annually in the PRB and this Hg is transported downstream to the Tiber River, and eventually to the Mediterranean Sea. Similar to Hg, maximum mass loads for As and Sb were found in March 2011, when as much as 190 g day^?1 each of As and Sb were measured from sites downstream from the ASSM. Therefore, the Paglia River represents a significant source of Hg, Sb, and As to the Mediterranean Sea.     

Trace metals and organochlorines in sediments near a major ocean outfall on a high energy continental margin (Sydney, Australia)

Sewage effluent from a large ocean outfall south of Sydney, southeastern Australia, is efficiently dispersed on this high energy continental margin. An enrichment of Ag, Cu, Pb and Zn is only detectable in the fine fraction (<62.5 microm) of sediment. Ag, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in the bulk sample correlate strongly with the mud content of surficial sediment, making an identification of the anthropogenic trace metal source difficult using total sediment analyses. The concentrations of HCB and DDE in the total sediment are also slightly elevated near the outfall. In the vicinity of the outfall, the estimated sewage component in the fine fraction of sediment, using Ag, Cu and Zn in a conservative, two-endmember physical mixing model, is <5% and is <0.25% of the total sediment. A greater anthropogenic Pb component in the fine fraction (mean: 24.8%) of surficial sediment compared to Ag, Cu and Zn may suggest a source other than sewage to Sydney continental margin sediments.     

Trace elements in canvasbacks (Aythya valisineria) wintering in Louisiana, USA, 1987-1988

We determined trace element concentrations in livers of canvasbacks (Aythya valisineria) collected at Catahoula Lake and the Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana during, the winter of 1987-1988. Forty percent of canvasbacks wintering at Lake Catahoula had elevated concentrations of lead (>6.7 microg g(-1) dry weight) in the liver; 33% had concentrations consistent with lead intoxication (>26.7 microg g(-1)). Based on the number of canvasbacks that winter at Lake Catahoula and the frequency of lead exposure there, more than 5% of the continental population of canvasbacks may be exposed to lead at Lake Catahoula alone. Lead concentrations in livers differed among months and were higher in males than females, but were not different in adults and immatures. Concentrations of selenium and mercury in livers of females differed among months but not by age or location. Cadmium concentrations in livers differed by age, location and month of collection, but not by sex. Frequencies and concentrations of trace elements not commonly associated with adverse effects on avian species (aluminum, arsenic, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, nickel, silver, vanadium and zinc) are presented. Except for the elevated concentrations of lead at Catahoula Lake, all trace elements were at background concentrations.     

A human health risk assessment of rare earth elements in soil and vegetables from a mining area in Fujian Province,Southeast China

Contaminated food through dietary intake has become the main potential risk impacts on human health. This study investigated concentrations of rare earth elements (REEs) in soil, vegetables, human hair and blood, and assessed human health risk through vegetables consumption in the vicinity of a large-scale mining area located in Hetian Town of Changting County, Fujian Province, Southeast China. The results of the study included the following mean concentrations for total and bio-available REEs of 242.92 ± 68.98 (135.85–327.56) μg g⁻¹ and 118.59 ± 38.49 (57.89–158.96) μg g⁻¹ dry weight (dw) in agricultural soil, respectively, and total REEs of 3.58 ± 5.28 (0.07–64.42) μg g⁻¹ dw in vegetable samples. Concentrations of total REEs in blood and hair collected from the local residents ranged from 424.76 to 1274.80 μg L⁻¹ with an average of 689.74 ± 254.25 μg L⁻¹ and from 0.06 to 1.59 μg g⁻¹ with an average of 0.48 ± 0.59 μg g⁻¹ of the study, respectively. In addition, a significant correlation was observed between REEs in blood and corresponding soil samples (R² = 0.6556, p < 0.05), however there was no correlation between REEs in hair and corresponding soils (p > 0.05). Mean concentrations of REEs of 2.85 (0.59–10.24) μg L⁻¹ in well water from the local households was 53-fold than that in the drinking water of Fuzhou city (0.054 μg L⁻¹). The health risk assessment indicated that vegetable consumption would not result in exceeding the safe values of estimate daily intake (EDI) REEs (100−110 μg kg⁻¹ d⁻¹) for adults and children, but attention should be paid to monitoring human beings health in such rare earth mining areas due to long-term exposure to high dose REEs from food consumptions.