基于水劣化足迹的城市发展的水环境效应评价——以北京市为例

水劣化足迹是反映污染物排放对水质影响程度的一种评价方法和指标.为了评估和揭示北京市城市发展的水环境效应,本文基于水劣化足迹评价的方法框架,发展和完善相关模型和参数,选取关键污染因子,对北京市2004—2013年水体酸化足迹、水体富营养化足迹和水体生态毒性足迹进行了评价,进而对水劣化足迹与部分城市发展指标的相关关系进行了分析.结果显示:12004—2013年北京市水酸化足迹逐年减小,由2004年的19.1×107kg SO_2eq减少到2013年的8.7×107kg SO_2eq,污染排放对水体酸化的影响有所减弱;2水体富营养化足迹在2004—2009年和2010—2013年两个时间段内总体均呈现减少趋势,但后一时间段内水体富营养化绝对值总体高于前一时间段.2004—2009年,水体富营养化足迹减少了约1.5×10~7kg NO_3eq,而从2010—2013年减少了约0.8×107kg NO_3~-eq;2011年至2013年期间,基于新增污染物(氨氮、总氮和总磷)计算的水体富营养化足迹减少了2.4×10~7kg NO_3eq.从其组成来看,水体富营养化的关键因素为总磷;3选取铅(Pb)、汞(Hg)、铬(Cr)、镉(Cd)、砷(As)5种重金属污染物,对北京市2011—2013年的水体生态毒性足迹进行评价发现,水体生态毒性足迹从4234.7×106m3H_2O eq增加到4653.1×106m3H2O eq.从其组成来看,重金属水体生态毒性足迹的关键污染因子为镉(Cd);4水劣化足迹与城市发展特征指标的关系分析显示,人口数量增速减缓、产业结构调整(第二产业向第三产业转化)以及农业化肥用量的减少,对于水劣化足迹的改善有积极作用.     

中国核电能源链的生命周期温室气体排放研究

应用全能源链分析(PCA)和生命周期分析(LCA)方法,采用第一手调查数据和一些新的参数,对我国核电能源链的生命周期温室气体排放进行评价计算.结果表明,现阶段我国核电能源链(包括核燃料循环前段、核电站)的实际温室气体排放量为6.2g CO2,eq/(k W·h),若考虑核燃料循环后段(乏燃料后处理与废物处置)则总的温室气体排放量为11.9g CO2,eq/(k W·h).核电是低碳能源,发展核电代替一定规模的煤电提供一次能源,每1k W·h电力生产能够减排大约1kg二氧化碳.推进核电产业链的技术升级和持续节能降耗,鼓励材料再循环再利用,核电能源链的温室气体排放仍有进一步降低的空间.     

设施番茄生产系统的环境影响生命周期评价

应用生命周期评价方法,以陕西省西安市郊区为例,对设施番茄生产系统进行了环境影响评价.结果表明,日光温室和塑料大棚生产1000kg番茄消耗的能源和水资源分别是1740.58 MJ、50.767 m3和1502.346 MJ、53.734 m3;全球变暖潜值(以CO2当量计)、环境酸化潜值(以SO2当量计)、富营养化潜值(以PO3-4当量计)、光化学烟雾潜值(以C2H2当量计)、土壤毒性(以1,4-DCB当量计)、水体毒性(以1,4-DCB当量计)和人类毒性潜值(以1,4-DCB计)分别为271.943 kg、2.151 kg、0.247 kg、0.157 kg、24.217 kg、19.545 kg、0.124 kg和239.163 kg、1.88 kg、0.305 kg、0.109 kg、31.686 kg、19.7 kg、0.304 kg.设施构筑物自身建设和维护带来的主要潜在环境影响是能源耗竭、全球变暖和环境酸化;番茄种植环节引起的主要潜在环境影响是水资源耗竭、富营养化、全球变暖、土壤毒性和水体毒性;农资生产环节的主要潜在环境影响是能源耗竭.设施番茄生产系统中对环境影响大的建材和农资是钢材、聚乙烯材料、氮肥、农药和含过量重金属的有机肥.设施番茄生产系统对环境的影响不容忽视,应展开以降低其环境影响为目标的设施结构与建材、温室内气候条件调控、合理施肥和施药的研究,并对采取的技术方法进行生命周期评价,以确保设施蔬菜的可持续发展.研究结果可为促进设施蔬菜生产系统的可持续发展提供科学依据.     

富营养化对城市水体温室气体排放的影响

富营养化是城市水体存在的重要环境问题,城市的河湖生态系统一般都是温室气体重要的源,治理城市水体富营养化和减少温室气体排放是解决城市生态环境问题的迫切需求。为了深刻理解富营养化对城市水体温室气体排放通量的影响,文章通过文献研究和数据再分析,综述了水体富营养化状态下碳、氮、磷等营养盐指标和水质指标对城市水体温室气体总增温潜势和水-气界面温室气体(CO₂、CH₄、N₂O)排放通量的影响。结果表明：城市水体总增温潜势、水-气界面温室气体排放通量与水体碳、氮、磷等营养盐指标呈显著正相关关系,与水体溶解氧、p H呈显著负相关关系。可见,富营养化状态下营养盐的增加会促进城市水体水-气界面温室气体通量排放,说明减污与降碳可以协同增效。     

基于生命周期评价的氮肥温室气体排放研究

采用生命周期评价方法研究硝酸铵、磷酸二铵、复合肥、尿素、碳酸氢铵5种不同含氮量的氮肥温室气体排放,为碳足迹标识评价提供借鉴和数据基础。分析优选有利于控制温室气体排放的氮肥种类。生命周期温室气体排放评价结果表明:硝酸铵6.3543kg CO2eq/kg,磷酸二铵14%含氮率和17%含氮率分别为2.4416kg CO2eq/kg、2.7792kg CO2eq/kg,复合肥7%含氮率和13%含氮率分别为1.9721kg CO2eq/kg、2.6473kg CO2eq/kg,尿素9.2627kg CO2eq/kg,碳酸氢铵4.0132kg CO2eq/kg;相同含氮量情况下,磷酸二铵生命周期温室气体排放相对较少,是控制氮肥生命周期温室气体排放的最优选对象。     

垃圾热化学转化利用过程中碳排放的两种计算方法

为了明确城市生活垃圾焚烧和热解两种热化学方式处理过程中温室气体的排放量(简称"碳排放"或GHG),分别采用生命周期评价方法(LCA)和政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC)制定的2006国家温室气体排放清单指南(简称"IPCC2006指南")进行了核算,并计算了两种垃圾热化学处理方式相对于填埋处理的GHG减排量.结果表明,两种核算方法计算所得的不同垃圾处理方式的碳排放趋势基本一致,但基于IPCC2006指南计算出的GHG减排量高于LCA方法的计算结果.相对填埋处理而言,焚烧处理的GHG减排量从LCA法的597～660kg(以CO2当量计,下同)提高到IPCC2006指南法的648～747kg;垃圾热解发电的GHG减排量从LCA法的535kg提高到IPCC2006指南法的589kg.同时,对这两种核算方法的特点及在我国的适用性进行了分析,研究认为LCA法和IPCC2006指南可以结合使用以促进我国GHG核算机制的完善.     

我国发展低碳农业的主要措施研究

在全球气候变暖和能源危机的背景下,农业是温室气体主要排放源之一,低碳农业作为应对气候变化的农业行动,越来越受到人们的重视。低碳农业的目标是减缓温室气体,实现高效率、低能耗、低排放、高碳汇的高效农业。在推动我国低碳农业发展的措施方面,总结起来主要包括减少碳排放、增加碳汇和采用其他相应的技术措施相结合。也就是通过一系列相应的技术措施和基础设施建设,减少温室气体总量排放的同时,增加耕地、草地和林地吸收二氧化碳的量,从而实现低碳农业的可持续发展。     

凤眼莲、稻草和污泥制备生物炭的特性表征与环境影响解析

有机废弃物限氧热解制备生物炭可在减缓温室气体排放的同时改善土壤和水体环境质量,但同时生物炭在环境中的应用具有潜在生态毒理风险.因此,在将生物炭大规模应用于各类环境介质前,对其关键物理-化学性质进行系统分析与评价是极为必要的.本文选择对我国水生生态环境危害最大的入侵植物凤眼莲(Eichhornia crassipes)和我国产量最高的农业废弃物稻草,以及市政污水处理厂剩余污泥3种生物质前体,于250~550℃进行低温慢热解,对所制备生物炭的表面形貌、元素组成、矿物形态和一系列关键化学特性进行了全面表征与比较分析.在此基础上,深入探讨了此3类生物炭应用于土壤改良、重金属污染修复和水体富营养化控制的潜力与风险.结果表明,凤眼莲生物炭中K、Ca、Na、Mg含量最为丰富,指示其对于缓解土壤酸化具有重要应用价值,而其中P主要以AlPO_4晶体态存在,水溶性较低,这有利于降低此类生物炭引起水体富营养化的风险;水稻秸秆生物炭阳离子交换量(CEC)相对较高,达到33.7 cmol·kg~(-1),表明其在提高土壤保肥能力和降低重金属生物有效性方面具有较大潜力;SEM-EDX显示,凤眼莲生物炭和稻草秸秆生物炭均具有发达的束筒结构,可优先考虑用于改善土壤通气性;但是,部分生物炭中水溶性Cd、As含量超出安全阈值,表明对有机质前体和热解产物进行严格检测和筛选是实现生物炭在环境与农业中安全利用的必要环节.     

基于脱钩分析的湖北省低碳农业评估

低碳农业是碳减排及生态文明要求下的产物,低碳农业评估对于实现区域农业碳减排以及推进农业生产方式的低碳转型具有指导意义。利用基于脱钩理论的Tapio弹性分析方法,以农业投入为中间变量构建脱钩弹性模型,结合碳排放强度与脱钩指数探讨与评估区域低碳农业发展水平。对于湖北省的低碳农业水平评估结果表明,研究期间其农业碳排放强度明显降低,已基本完成中国关于低碳发展的承诺及国家"十二五"规划所确定的碳排放强度控制目标。湖北省农业从2006年开始逐渐稳定在相对低碳水平,且逐步向绝对低碳过渡。以氮肥为主的化肥投入逐年增加是制约低碳农业水平提高的主要因素。     

发展低碳农业已刻不容缓

上期《环境经济》的封面文章——《低碳农业的春天》,我们看到了低碳农业在我国的现状和发展前景。一般来说,以减缓温室气体排放为目标,以减少碳排放、增加碳汇和适应气候变化技术为手段,通过加强基础设施建设、产业结构调整、提高土壤有机质、做好病虫害防治、发展农村可再生能源等农业生产和农民生活方式转变,     

基于生命周期评价的原生和再生PET纤维环境影响对比分析

分别以再生长丝〔以回收再生聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯（PET）瓶片为原料制备〕及原生长丝（以精对苯二甲酸和乙二醇为原料制备）为分析对象,利用生命周期评价(LCA)方法量化分析生产各阶段的环境影响及贡献,并提出减小环境影响的建议。选取全球变暖潜值、酸化效应潜值、非生物耗竭、光化学臭氧合成、陆地生态毒性潜值 5种环境影响类别进行分类计算。结果表明：再生长丝生产过程中熔融纺丝阶段的环境影响贡献大于物理处理阶段;通过特征化分析和归一化分析,与原生PET长丝相比,生产每100 kg的再生PET长丝全球变暖潜势减少32.09 kg (以CO₂计）,酸化效应潜值减少0.37 kg (以SO₂计);原生PET长丝和再生PET长丝生产过程中环境影响贡献最大的类别均为非生物耗竭。根据生命周期多边形法对5种环境影响类别的综合直观评估结果表明,再生PET长丝相比于原生PET长丝对环境影响更小,可以从能源优化、工艺环节改善等方面减小环境影响。

     

Improving eco-efficiency in the steel industry: The ArcelorMittal Gent case

In addition to CO₂ released by the combustion of fossil fuel and leading to climate change, large steelworks emit pollutants that have other environmental impacts. ArcelorMittal Gent, an integrated steelwork producing ca. 5 × 10⁶ tons of steel per year, not only decreased its specific energy consumption and CO₂-emissions, but also reduced the environmental impact of its other emissions. This is illustrated by means of the evolution of 6 partial eco-efficiency indicators for the impact categories acidification, photo-oxidant formation, human toxicity, freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity, eutrophication and water use. The partial eco-efficiency indicators are eco-intensities, defined as the environmental impact in the respective impact category, divided by the amount of liquid steel produced. In the period 1995 – 2005 these indicators decreased by 45, 4, 52, 9, 11 and 33% respectively, whereas the steel production increased by 17%. The net impact of discharges of wastewater is negligible for human toxicity and is negative (concentrations lower than in the canal water used) for freshwater aquatic toxicity and eutrophication. For acidification, human toxicity (only emissions to air) and water use, the decoupling between environmental impact and production was absolute; for photo-oxidant formation, freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity (only emissions to air) and eutrophication, it was relative.     

Assessment of the environmental impact of carnivorous finfish production systems using life cycle assessment

When evaluating the environmental impacts of finfish production systems, both regional impacts (e.g., eutrophication) and global impacts (e.g., climate change) should be taken into account. The life cycle assessment (LCA) method is well suited for this purpose. Three fish farms that represent contrasting intensive production systems were investigated using LCA: rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in freshwater raceways in France, sea-bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) in sea cages in Greece, and turbot (Scophtalmus maximus) in an inland re-circulating system close to the seashore in France. Two main characteristics differentiated the three farm systems: feed use and energy use. Emission of nitrogen and phosphorus accounted for more than 90% of each farm's potential eutrophication impact. In the trout and sea-bass systems, feed production was the major contributor to potential climate change and acidification impacts and net primary production use (NPPU). In these systems, the main source of variation for environmental impacts was the feed conversion ratio. Results from this study indicate that the sea-bass cage system was less efficient than the trout raceway system, with a higher level of potential eutrophication (65% greater) and NPPU (15% greater). The turbot re-circulating system was a high energy-consumer compared to the trout raceway system (four times higher) and the sea-bass cage system (five times higher). Potential climate change and acidification impacts were largely influenced by energy consumption in the turbot re-circulating system. In the turbot re-circulating system 86% of energy use was due to on-site consumption, while in the sea-bass cage farming system 72% of energy use was due to feed production. These results are discussed in relation to regional contexts of production and focus attention on the sensitivity of each aquatic environment and the use of energy carriers.     

Environmental impact of cement production: detail of the different processes and cement plant variability evaluation

This study evaluates the environmental impact of the cement production and its variations between different cement plants, using Life Cycle Impact Assessment. For that purpose, details of the cement production processes are investigated in order to show the respective part of raw materials preparation and clinker production using environmental impacts calculated with CML01 indicators. For the kiln emission data, a European pollutant emission register for French intensive industries is used to quantify the variability of indicators between cement plants. For the CML01 indicators that are controlled by kiln emissions, some of them (i.e. global warming, photochemical oxidation) show variations between cement plants between 20 and 30%, as for other (i.e. acidification, eutrophication, terrestrial ecotoxicity) variations are greater than 40% due to the lack of accurate measurements on both pollutant content and annual flow. Finally, a normalisation, using Western Europe yearly emissions is performed and permits to highlight among all the CML01 indicators which ones are the main impacts for the cement production. Abiotic depletion, global warming, acidification and marine ecotoxicity are the four identified impacts.     

Australian characterisation factors and normalisation figures for human toxicity and ecotoxicity

The fate, exposure and effects model USES-LCA 2.0 has been adapted to calculate characterisation factors for toxic chemicals emitted under Australian conditions. Normalisation data for Australian ecotoxicity and human toxicity have been calculated using the emission data from the National Pollutant Inventory (2002/2003) and pesticide use information. National freshwater ecotoxicity and terrestrial ecotoxicity impacts are dominated by pesticide use. Total marine ecotoxicity is dominated by fluoride, originating from air emissions from the electricity supply and non-ferrous metals' (and products) manufacturing industry sectors and water emissions from the sewerage treatment plants. The human toxicity is primarily attributed to the inhalation of toxic metal dust. There is a large diffuse component (primarily from road dust) and the remaining human toxicity contributions can be attributed to air emissions from the mining (non-ferrous metal ores), electricity supply and non-ferrous metals' (and products) manufacturing industry sectors. Future research should investigate the feasibility of combining NPI emissions with regional (climate) specific characterisation factors.     

LCA of spent fluorescent lamps in Thailand at various rates of recycling

This paper presents environmental impact of a fluorescent lamp (a long straight tube 36 watts, 200 g and 13,600 h for mean time before failure) when considering different disposal methods (recycle and non-recycle) of its spent fluorescent lamp (SFL). The study was applied for the case in Thailand using life cycle assessment (LCA) as a tool. All materials, energy use, and pollutant emissions to the environment from each related process were identified and analyzed. Impact assessment was conducted for 10 environmental impact potentials: carcinogens, respiratory organics, respiratory inorganics, climate change, radiation, ozone layer, ecotoxicity, acidification/eutrophication, land use and minerals. The analysis followed Eco-Indicator 99 method, individualist version 2.1. The main focus of the study was to compare the impact of SFL recycling with non-recycling before landfilling. The impact intermittent activities, production of raw material and energy used in all the concerned processes were taken into account. However, transportation activities were excluded. The results showed that for all recycling rates, cement production is the main contributor to the environmental impacts, while sodium sulfide production is second and electrical production, the third. Mercury vapor emission showed a small contribution in carcinogens and ecotoxicity. The impacts are reduced when recycling rate is increased. The reduction of cement consumption in disposal processes or the process improvement of cement production may also help to reduce environmental impacts.     

不同施肥模式下甘薯乙醇生命周期能效与环境影响分析

采用生命周期分析方法,以1 000 L甘薯乙醇为单位功能单元,将甘薯乙醇生产体系分成作物种植、原料运输和乙醇转换等3个单元,对其生命周期能耗与环境排放进行清单分析和影响评价,比较习惯施肥与测土配方施肥下甘薯乙醇生命周期9类环境影响潜力的差异。结果表明：两种施肥模式下甘薯乙醇生产体系的生命周期能源效率分别为1.41和1.43。习惯施肥模式下甘薯乙醇生命周期主要环境影响类型包括人体毒性、富营养化、酸化、淡水生态毒性、能耗和全球变暖,其环境影响潜力分别相当于2000年世界人均影响潜力的40%、40%、31%、29%、25%和20%。测土配方施肥降低了化学氮肥和磷肥使用量,提高了肥料利用效率和甘薯单产,使富营养化、淡水生态毒性、酸化和全球变暖潜力分别降低了31%、15%、9%和7%。可见,测土配方施肥模式可改善甘薯乙醇生命周期的能源效率并显著缓解其负面环境影响。     

2nd Generation biofuels a sure bet? A life cycle assessment of how things could go wrong

Biofuels are heavily debated as to their potential to reduce transport-related greenhouse gas emissions. Life cycle thinking gave rise to formal evaluations of the energy balance of such fuels, which led to the vigorously conducted “corn to ethanol” debates. Just as consensus was building on such evaluations came the “carbon debt” insights, a result of applying consequential Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) backed by advanced economic modeling. Increasingly, hopes have shifted to the 2nd generation biofuels, viewed as a “technological home run”. Could this also backfire? We investigate a simple South African case in which there might not be improvements in environmental performance: a sugar mill sells its bagasse, currently used at low efficiency to provide process heat, to an advanced biofuels producer, and buys an equivalent amount of coal without investing in efficiency improvements. Seven scenarios are generated, ranging from the status quo, where no bagasse is diverted, to 100% bagasse diversion, with one scenario including an energy efficiency improvement in the sugar mill. A consequential LCA is applied to the seven scenarios, covering global warming potential (GWP), non-renewable energy use, aquatic eutrophication and terrestrial acidification. A basic financial analysis of the proposed scenarios shows that they are realistic, with potentially lucrative returns. Results show that diverting bagasse without efficiency improvements from its current use to an ethanol bio-refinery would indeed backfire for all environmental impacts studied. The base case outperforms all the other scenarios, with the 100% bagasse diversion scenario emerging the worst. Investments into energy efficiency are therefore a precondition for diverting cellulosic residues into biofuel production.