A Suggestion for an Improved Vegetation Scheme for Local and Global Mapping and Monitoring

The next stage in the process will be to obtain the views of as many people working in as many different fields as possible, to see whether the proposed scheme suits their needs and how it should be modified. With a few modifications, such a scheme could easily be appended to an existing land cover classification scheme, such as the FAO system, greatly increasing the usefulness and accessability of the results of the landcover classification.     

Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea and Hesperioidea) of Roxborough State Park, Colorado, USA: Baseline Inventory, Community Attributes, and Monitoring Plan

/ Roxborough State Park in Colorado's Front Range was established in 1975 following a history of cattle and sheep ranching by private ownership. Survey work conducted from 1979 to 1995 resulted in the documentation of 93 species of butterflies. A variety of factors are responsible for the composition of the butterfly community: (1) overgrazing and its effect on the presence or absence of specific butterfly host plants; (2) habitat differences resulting from topographical and geological features; and (3) ecological and historical biogeography. This study provides data on community sampling adequacy, along with estimates of effort needed to monitor trends in abundance by using a community self-similarity curve and power analysis. An annual monitoring plan is proposed to assess trends in community composition. The plan includes collection of presence/absence and abundance data for select butterflies based on natural history information.KEY WORDS: Butterfly communities; Grazing; Inventory; Monitoring; Natural history     

Use of Landsat Thematic Mapper Data to Assess Seasonal Rangeland Changes in the Southeast Kalahari, Botswana

/ Management problems arise in semiarid rangeland that are characterized by marked wet and dry seasons because of forage deficiencies in the dry season. These natural vegetation rangelands can sustain livestock all year long when forage and senesced grass are available into the dry season. Seasonal range condition data are required to provide a basis for pasture management to help locate dry season cover and thereby minimize overstocking and degradation. The generation of seasonal data using Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery was undertaken to assess changes in natural vegetation cover in the southern Botswana Kalahari. Visual analysis of spectral reflectance curves, the development of spectral separability indexes, and conventional classification analysis techniques were used to identify and differentiate rangeland features. Results from reflectance curves indicated that most rangeland cover types could be preferentially distinguished using mainly wet season data, especially on the longer TM wavebands, and that range feature differentiation was more problematic on darker soils than on lighter soils. Spectral separability indexes (SSIs) confirmed that range feature separation varied considerably as a function of waveband and was more effective in the wet than the dry season. The SSIs also showed that range feature differentiation in both seasons was most effective using a combination of the chlorophyll absorpance band (TM3) and two mid-infrared bands (TM5 and TM7). Wet season data were more effectively classified in terms of range features than dry season data although some class similarity was inferred across the two classified data sets. The work shows that overall trends may be generated by comparing seasonal data sets, thereby providing an overall basis for dry season decision making. However, particular problems arise within the dry season data sets probably because of spectral similarities between shadow and darkened vegetation cover, thereby implying that further work is needed. KEY WORDS: Semiarid rangelands; Botswana; Kalahari; Spectral differentiation; Seasonal change; Darkened vegetation cover     

Volunteer Environmental Monitoring and the Role of the Universities: The Case of Citizens' Environment Watch

Universities can provide a stable home for launching collaborative community research projects. Citizens' Environment Watch (CEW), an environmental monitoring initiative based at the University of Toronto, has made significant contributions to environmental education and stewardship in Ontario, Canada. Following dramatic cuts in provincial monitoring programs, citizens and youth have used chemical parameters and biological indicators to gauge water and air quality, and to identify areas requiring remediation and pollution prevention efforts. The relationship of Citizens' Environment Watch to government agencies, funders and other grassroots environmental groups has evolved over the past 5 years as CEW attempts to remain effective without taking on the investigative and enforcement roles to support the regulatory enforcement that has been largely abandoned by government. We explore the challenges inherent in developing and maintaining a volunteer organization that carries out rigorous and useful scientific work and we outline the ability of a university to help overcome these critical challenges. Finally, we present lessons learned for the benefit of other citizen and youth monitoring projects.     

Woody debris in north Iberian streams: influence of geomorphology, vegetation, and management

The effect of stream geomorphology, maturity, and management of riparian forests on abundance, role, and mobility of wood was evaluated in 20 contrasting reaches in the Agüera stream catchment (northern Iberian Peninsula). During 1 year the volume of woody debris exceeding 1 cm in diameter was measured in all reaches. All large woody debris (φ > 5 cm) pieces were tagged, their positions mapped, and their subsequent changes noted. Volume of woody debris was in general low and ranged from 40 to 22,000 cm³ m⁻²; the abundance of debris dams ranged from 0 to 5.5 per 100 m of channel. Wood was especially rare and unstable in downstream reaches, or under harvested forests (both natural or plantations). Results stress that woody debris in north Iberian streams has been severely reduced by forestry and log removal. Because of the important influence of woody debris on structure and function of stream systems, this reduction has likely impacted stream communities. Therefore, efforts to restore north Iberian streams should include in-channel and riparian management practices that promote greater abundance and stability of large woody debris whenever possible.     

Land use change and carbon exchange in the tropics: III. Structure,basic equations,and sensitivity analysis of the model

The rationale, assumptions, structure and basic mathematical functions of the model used to produce the simulation results reported in the first two articles of this series are described in detail. Sensitivity analysis indicates that the most important parameters in the model, and, presumably, in the carbon exchange between tropical forests and the atmosphere, are: (a) the conversion rate of forests to permanent pasture and agriculture, (b) the changes that are occurring and have occurred in the shifting cultivation system, and (c) the fate of cleared vegetation. Although it is not possible to validate the model against direct measurements of carbon exchange, the model has been proven robust when subject to a series of explicit analyses and comparisons with other assessments.     

Monitoring the volume and lateral spread of disposed sediments by acoustic methods, Oslo Harbor, Norway

Acoustic equipment, including interferometric sonar and parametric sub-bottom profiler, have been used to determine the volume and lateral spread of dredged sediments disposed in the natural submarine depression in the Bekkelag Basin, inner Oslofjord since the beginning of the Oslo Harbor remediation project in 2006. This natural depression is used as a subaqueous confined disposal facility (CDF). Calculation of the volume of disposed sediments in the CDF is based on elevation change, derived from two high-resolution bathymetric datasets obtained in 2004, i.e. before the onset of the remediation project, and in April 2008. Seismic profiles across the CDF have been used to estimate the settlement of the original seabed, caused by loading-induced dewatering and compaction of the seabed sediments under the disposed masses.Detailed bathymetry and backscatter data demonstrate the lateral spread of disposed sediments within a well-confined area covering ca. 195,000 m². The sea bottom within this area is distinctly softer than the surrounding seabed as shown by very low acoustic backscatter amplitude, signifying a very loose surface character of the disposed sediments. The thickness of the disposed sediments reaches 6 m the deepest part of the original depression. The volume calculation of the disposed sediments in the CDF, based solely on bathymetry data, gives a value of ca. 310,000–320,000 m³. Settlement of the original seabed as a result of loading has been estimated to be 30 cm at 5 m thickness of the disposed sediments. Under the condition that the settlement rate is linearly correlated to the thickness of disposed sediments, the settlement corrected volume of disposed sediments is ca. 330,000–340,000 m³. Presented results demonstrate high accuracy and good reproducibility of acoustic seafloor data, and indicate a great potential of such methods as monitoring tools in environmental projects that involve dredging and subaqueous disposal.     

Monitoring Environmental Changes in the Mediterranean Coastal Landscape: The Case of Cukurova, Turkey

This paper describes a remote sensing approach used to monitor temporal land use/cover (LULC) changes in Cukurova, an extensive coastal plain in the southeast Mediterranean coast of Turkey. The area has varied terrain ranging from low-lying alluvial deposits to rocky hills and mountains characterized by limestone outcrops. The ecological and economic importance of the area can be attributed to the existence of important coastal ecosystems (e.g., wetlands and sand dunes) and a wide range of industries located along the eastern coast. Temporal changes in the coastal landscape between 1984 and 2000 were evaluated using digital interpretation of remotely sensed satellite data. Pairwise comparison methods were used to quantify changes from 1984 to 1993 and 1993 to 2000 using multitemporal Landsat TM and ETM+ images, acquired in 1984, 1993, and 2000, respectively. Total change area was 2448 ha from 1984 to 1993 and increased more than twofold, to 6072 ha from 1993 to 2000. Change trends were determined using the information provided from individual change detection outputs of different periods. The most prominent changes were estimated to have occurred in agriculture, urban, and natural vegetation cover. Agriculture has increasingly grown over marginal areas, whereas urban development occurred at the expense of prime croplands across both time steps.     

Landscape design,planning, and management: An approach to the analysis of vegetation

The process of analyzing vegetation in terms of its suitability for various non-consumptive uses is primitive in comparison with systems for evaluating other resources such as soil and topography. This paper proposes a framework for developing a standardized, quantitative vegetation analysis system based on plant ecology methods. A tentative scheme under study in Wisconsin is presented for discussion purposes.     

Land use change and carbon exchange in the tropics: II. Estimates for the entire region

Determining the effect of tropical land use on the carbon dioxide (CO₂) content of the atmosphere requires: (a) estimates of the rates of land use change, (b) estimates of the difference between the carbon stored in forests and that stored in pastures and cultivated fields, and (c) a consideration of the fate of carbon stored in the cleared vegetation. The first article of this series analyzed land use in four tropical countries and estimated the carbon released to the atmosphere as a consequence of changes in land use. This article estimates the carbon released from the entire tropical region based on the two published studies of land use change for the tropics as a whole that distinguish between temporary and permanent land use: Seiler and Crutzen (1980) and Lanly (1982). We combine these estimates with two estimates of the difference in carbon storage between forests and fields derived from Whittaker and Likens (1975) and Brown and Lugo (1982), and the two scenarios of the fate of cleared vegetation, developed in the previous article, to produce several complete sets of data describing the necessary parameters to calculate carbon exchange. These data sets, entered into our model, produce a range of estimates of the annual release of carbon from tropical vegetation in 1980 of from 0.6 to 1.8 BMT/year, with the more likely range being 0.9–1.2 BMT/year. Our preliminary analysis suggests that the release from tropical soils due to land use change adds about an additional 0.3 BMT C/year, so that the total release is probably between 1.2 and 1.5 BMT C/year. Peng and others (1983) reported that new models of the oceanic carbon cycle can accommodate at least 1.2 BMT C/year in 1980 from forests and soils. Our results indicate that, given the uncertainties in the size of both the biotic release and oceanic uptake, the global carbon budget may be balanced if there is no significant release from nontropical ecosystems due to land use change and all mature ecosystems are in collective equilibrium with the atmosphere.     

Policy, Principle, and Practice in Industrial Pollution Control: Views from the Regulatory Interface

There has been much criticism of the system for the control of industrial pollution, but not much is known about the views of the regulators and the industry. The objective of this study was to explore the attitudes at this regulatory interface towards the current and proposed regulatory system and make recommendations for improvements. The methodology involved a questionnaire survey sent to over 700 key personnel. Statistical analysis revealed similarities and significant differences between the views of industry and the regulator on the effectiveness of the current regime. Weaknesses related to the derivation and enforcement of standards were identified. The Environmental Quality Standards system was acknowledged to be flawed by both operators and regulators who agreed it should be improved by the expansion of listed chemicals, the introduction of sediment environmental quality standards and direct toxicity assessment of effluents. This paper concludes that these measures should be incorporated into the regulatory system, together with more rigorous enforcement of environmental performance standards including serious sanctions for non-compliance. In the longer term, a reappraisal of the regulatory system is required in order to establish an appropriate framework to ensure that environmental policy commitments are implemented.     

Describing and Mapping Human-Induced Vegetation Change in the Australian Landscape

Australian reporting requirements for native vegetation require improved spatial and temporal information on the anthropogenic effects on vegetation. This includes better linkage of information on vegetation type (e.g., native vegetation association), extent and change, vegetation condition, or modification. The Vegetation Assets, States and Transitions (VAST) framework is presented as a means for ordering vegetation by degree of anthropogenic modification as a series of condition states, from a residual or base-line condition through to total removal. The VAST framework facilitates mapping and accounting for change and trends in the status and condition of vegetation. The framework makes clear the links between land management and vegetation condition states, provides a mechanism for describing the consequences of land management practices on vegetation condition, and contributes to an understanding of resilience. VAST is a simple communication and reporting tool designed to assist in describing and accounting for anthropogenic modification of vegetation. A benchmark is identified for each vegetation association. Benchmarks are based on structure, composition, and current regenerative capacity. This article describes the application of the VAST framework as a consistent national framework to translate and compile existing mapped information on the modification of native vegetation. We discuss the correspondence between these compiled VAST datasets at national and regional scales and describe their relevance for natural resource policy and planning.     

Temperature, Salinity, and Fluorescence in Southern North Sea: High-Resolution Data Sampled from a Ferry

/ In 1991 and 1992, temperature, salinity, and fluorescence were measured by automatic continuous registration using instrumentation on a ferry crossing the southern North Sea daily along a transect between Zeebrugge, Belgium, and Hull, United Kingdom. The temperature ranged between 4 and 21 degrees C off the Belgian coast and between 6 and 17 degrees C in the middle of the transect. Salinity varied between 34 and 35.5 PSU in the offshore part of the transect, but showed much larger variation along the Belgian and UK estuarine coasts. Fluorescence, which was used as a measure of phytoplankton biomass, was highest at the continental coast and lowest near the English coast. Spring blooms of phytoplankton were found along the continental coast and in the channel-influenced water; in 1991 the blooms were denser than in 1992. Some summer blooms were also recorded. Water masses could be distinguished on the basis of salinity and fluorescence patterns. The general patterns in the data are compared with the literature and discussed in relation to river discharge, light penetration, and wind speed and direction. Finally, the value of automatic and frequent measurements of fluorescence for monitoring phytoplankton is compared with less frequent observations at selected stations. It is concluded that accurate information about phytoplankton biomass can only be established from the high-frequency data. KEY WORDS: Monitoring; Sampling; North Sea; Ferry; Fluorescence; Salinity; Temperature     

Wilderness campsite impacts: Do managers and visitors see them the same?

Human-induced impacts from recreational use of wilderness continue to be a significant management challenge, threatening the integrity of the wilderness resource and the quality of visitor experiences. Campsite impacts are of particular concern to managers. One approach to this problem is the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) planning system, which focuses attention on the question, “How much change in wilderness conditions is acceptable?” The research reported here compares and contrasts wilderness manager and visitor perceptions of theacceptability of different levels of campsite impacts,amount of impact, and perceptual zoning of wilderness. The results reinforce previous findings regarding differences between managers and visitors. Management implications are discussed.     

Population,Development, and Waste Management in Botswana: Conceptual and Policy Implications for Climate Change

Based on government and other relevant documentation, this paper explores the conceptual linkage between population, development, and waste management in Botswana and the implications of this relationship for global climate change. Population is increasing, albeit at a decreasing rate. Spatially, the population is becoming more and more concentrated as the rates and level of urbanization increase. Economic growth has remained consistently high. The combined effect of population dynamics and economic development are having a noticeable imprint on the environment in the form of increased waste generation. Poor waste management poses a real threat to environmental sustainability in general and climate change in particular because of inadequate technology, weak institutional mechanisms to enforce regulations, and low levels of sensitization among the public to deal with the problem. Mitigation measures are suggested to minimize the negative effects of waste management on climate change.     

Perceptions of Species Abundance,Distribution, and Diversity: Lessons from Four Decades of Sampling on a Government-Managed Reserve

/ We examined data relative to species abundance, distribution, anddiversity patterns of reptiles and amphibians to determine how perceptionschange over time and with level of sampling effort. Location data werecompiled on more than one million individual captures or observations of 98species during a 44-year study period on the US Department of Energy's(DOE) Savannah River Site National Environmental Research Park (SRS-NERP) inSouth Carolina. We suggest that perceptions of herpetofaunal speciesdiversity are strongly dependent on level of effort and that land managementdecisions based on short-term data bases for some faunal groups could resultin serious errors in environmental management. We provide evidence thatacquiring information on biodiversity distribution patterns is compatiblewith multiyear spatially extensive research programs and also provide aperspective of what might be achieved if long-term, coordinated researchefforts were instituted nationwide.To conduct biotic surveys on government-managed lands, we recommend revisionsin the methods used by government agencies to acquire and report biodiversitydata. We suggest that government and industry employees engaged inbiodiversity survey efforts develop proficiency in field identification forone or more major taxonomic groups and be encouraged to measure the status ofpopulations quantitatively with consistent and reliable methodologies. Wealso suggest that widespread academic cooperation in the dissemination ofinformation on regional patterns of biodiversity could result byestablishment of a peer-reviewed, scientifically rigorous journal concernedwith status and trends of the biota of the United States. KEY WORDS: Abundance; Amphibian; Biodiversity; Distribution; Landmanagement; Reptile     

Monitoring of Gin Drinkers' Bay landfill,Hong Kong: I. Landfill gas on top of the landfill

The present study centered on the composition of landfill gas and its effects on soil and plants at the Gin Drinkers' Bay (GDB) landfill in Hong Kong This first part of the study was a whole-year monitoring of landfill gas composition in the gas ventilation system installed on top of the landfill Methane, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and ethylene were measured It was shown that gas generation was positively correlated with the amount of precipitation and air temperature and negatively correlated with atmospheric pressure     

National policies for biosphere greenhouse gas management: issues and opportunities

Biosphere greenhouse gas (GHG) management consists of preserving and enhancing terrestrial carbon pools and producing biomass as a fossil fuel substitute. The discussion of this topic has focused primarily on carbon-accounting and project-level issues, particularly relating to carbon sequestration as a source of emissions credits under the Kyoto Protocol. While international consensus on these matters is needed, this paper argues that an important domestic policy agenda also deserves attention. National policies for biosphere GHG management are necessary to bring about large-scale changes in land-use, forestry, and agricultural practices and can address some of the technical and policy issues that have proven to be particularly problematic from carbon-accounting and project-level perspectives. These policies should minimize land-use and resource-management conflicts, account for collateral benefits, and ensure institutional compatibility with existing resource-management regimes. Issues relating to project permanence, leakage, and transaction costs should also be addressed. A range of policy instruments should be used and biosphere GHG management should be one component of an integrated approach to environmental and resource management. Countries promoting biosphere GHG management as an important element of their climate change strategies should be developing these domestic policies to complement international negotiations and to demonstrate that carbon sequestration and biomass production can make an effective contribution to the stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations.     

Preliminary Evidence for Pollen as an Indicator of Recent Floodplain Accumulation Rates and Vegetation Changes: The Barmah-Millewa Forest, SE Australia

Eucalyptus forest; and in the composition of understorey herbs, sedges, and grasslands. Pollen concentration and charcoal and organic content also exhibit post-European changes. Thus, pollen analysis provides a technique for determining changes in sediment budgets and identifying major vegetation changes in floodplains.     

Quantification of the regional carbon cycle of the biosphere: policy, science and land-use decisions

This paper addresses some issues related to the carbon cycle and its utilization by society. Traditional uses for agriculture, forestry, as a source of fuel and other products, and for pastoral farming, among others, have recently been supplemented by identifying its potential for mitigating the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Through the Kyoto Protocol, carbon has become a commodity and the CO(2)-absorbing capability of the vegetation and soils an economically valuable asset. The multi-facetted roles of the C cycle and its sensitivity to human activities present a demand for techniques that permit accurate, timely and affordable characterization of the various components of this cycle, especially on land where most human activities take place. Such techniques must satisfy a range of demands in terms of purpose, clients for the information, and biosphere properties. However, if successful, they offer the potential to support monitoring, reporting, policy setting, and management of terrestrial biospheric resources. The context for these requirements and possibilities is illustrated with reference to the China Carbon Sequestration Project and its findings.