Natural formation and degradation of chloroacetic acids and volatile organochlorines in forest soil--challenges to understanding

- DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.1065/espr2005.06.262 Goal, Scope and Background The anthropogenic environmental emissions of chloroacetic acids and volatile organochlorines have been under scrutiny in recent years because the two compound groups are suspected to contribute to forest dieback and stratospheric ozone destruction, respectively. The two organochlorine groups are linked because the atmospheric photochemical oxidation of some volatile organochlorine compounds is one source of phytotoxic chloroacetic acids in the environment. Moreover, both groups are produced in higher amounts by natural chlorination of organic matter, e.g. by soil microorganisms, marine macroalgae and salt lake bacteria, and show similar metabolism pathways. Elucidating the origin and fate of these organohalogens is necessary to implement actions to counteract environmental problems caused by these compounds. Main Features While the anthropogenic sources of chloroacetic acids and volatile organochlorines are relatively well-known and within human control, knowledge of relevant natural processes is scarce and fragmented. This article reviews current knowledge on natural formation and degradation processes of chloroacetic acids and volatile organochlorines in forest soils, with particular emphasis on processes in the rhizosphere, and discusses future studies necessary to understand the role of forest soils in the formation and degradation of these compounds. Results and Discussion Reviewing the present knowledge of the natural formation and degradation processes of chloroacetic acids and volatile organochlorines in forest soil has revealed gaps in knowledge regarding the actual mechanisms behind these processes. In particular, there remains insufficient quantification of reliable budgets and rates of formation and degradation of chloroacetic acids and volatile organochlorines in forest soil (both biotic and abiotic processes) to evaluate the strength of forest ecosystems regarding the emission and uptake of chloroacetic acids and volatile organochlorines, both on a regional scale and on a global scale. Conclusion It is concluded that the overall role of forest soil as a source and/or sink for chloroacetic acids and volatile organochlorines is still unclear; the available laboratory and field data reveal only bits of the puzzle. Detailed knowledge of the natural degradation and formation processes in forest soil is important to evaluate the strength of forest ecosystems for the emission and uptake of chloroacetic acids and volatile organochlorines, both on a regional scale and on a global scale. Recommendation and Perspective As the natural formation and degradation processes of chloroacetic acids and volatile organochlorines in forest soil can be influenced by human activities, evaluation of the extent of this influence will help to identify what future actions are needed to reduce human influences and thus prevent further damage to the environment and to human health caused by these compounds.     

Development of continental scale multimedia contaminant fate models: integrating GIS

The incentives and approaches for modelling chemical fate at a continental scale are discussed and reviewed. It is suggested that a multi-media model consisting of some 20-30 regions, each of which contains typically seven environmental compartments represents a reasonable compromise between the issues of the need for detailed resolution, avoidance of excessive data demands and inherent complexity and transparency. Strategies adopted in compiling the Berkley-Trent (BETR) model for North America are discussed and used to illustrate the issues of selecting appropriate number and nature of segments, treatment of air and water flows and the acquisition of environmental data. It is suggested that GIS software can play a valuable role in gathering and processing such data and in the display and interpretation of the results of the model assessment. The BETR model will be a useful tool for describing the nature of persistence and long-range transport of chemicals of concern in the North American environment.     

重金属和抗生素胁迫对亚硝酸盐氧化菌及硝化菌群活性的影响

重金属和抗生素广泛存在工业废水、养殖水体中,对硝化细菌活性有不同程度的影响。为研究重金属和抗生素胁迫对亚硝酸盐氧化菌(nitrite-oxidizing bacteria,NOB)及硝化菌群活性的影响,采集珠江水样富集硝化菌群并分离纯化NOB,研究了不同浓度重金属离子(Cu²⁺、Zn²⁺、Cd²⁺、Mn²⁺、Cr⁶⁺)和抗生素(卡那霉素、氨苄青霉素、链霉素、盐酸四环素)对NOB亚硝酸盐氧化活性的影响,揭示了不同重金属和抗生素胁迫对NOB及硝化菌群富集物活性的影响。结果表明：第15代富集培养的硝化菌群中Nitrosomonas丰度由0.11%升高至10.04%,Nitrobacter丰度由0.014%上升到2.104%;经鉴定,分离纯化的NOB菌株与Nitrobacter winogradskyi相似性为99.58%;NOB的亚硝酸盐氧化活性随重金属离子、抗生素浓度升高而下降;在初始NOB量相等情况下,与NOB组相比,硝化菌群富集物实验组在重金属或抗生素胁迫下,亚硝酸盐氧化速率更快,稳定性更高,对重金属和抗生素的抗逆性更强,对于处理含氮废水的实际应用潜力更大。该研究结果可为NOB的研究和在工业、养殖业水体净化的开发应用提供参考。     

Laboratory study highlights the key influences of stormwater sediment thickness and bioturbation by tubificid worms on dynamics of nutrients and pollutants in stormwater retention systems

In urban area, the accumulation of polluted stormwater sediments (SWS) in retention ponds may be a source of dissolved pollutants and nutrients for the aquatic ecosystems. Our objective was to quantify the influence of the thickness of SWS layer and the occurrence of tubificid worms on organic matter processing (O(2) uptake and fluxes of NH(4)(+), NO(3)(-), PO(4)(3-), and dissolved organic carbon between sediment and water), releases of 17 PAHs and 4 heavy metals, and microbial characteristics. Results showed that oxidation of SWS organic matter (O(2) and NO(3)(-) uptakes) and releases of nutrients were significantly increased by the quantity of accumulated SWS and the worm bioturbation. Releases of acenaphtene and naphthalene from sediments were significantly increased by the thickness of the SWS layer. In contrast, tubificid worms did not promote the mobilization of pollutants. In conclusion, biological activities and stormwater sediment characteristics need to be assessed to quantify the fate of pollutants and nutrients in stormwater retention ponds.     

污泥堆肥施用于草坪草栽培：Zn和Cu的分布特征

为了探索污泥堆肥中重金属在土壤一植物系统中的积累与转移特性,通过温室盆栽实验,分析了污泥堆肥对草坪草高羊茅、黑麦草和白三叶生物量积累的情况,研究了污泥堆肥中Zn和Cu在植物和土壤中的分布特征。结果表明,污泥堆肥施用可以有效促进3种草坪草的积累生物量,在0～6kg／m2的污泥堆肥施用量范围内,草坪草的生物量积累随着施用量的增加而提高。土壤中Zn和Cu的含量随污泥堆肥施加量的增加而增大,85％以上的Zn和Cu残留在土壤中。污泥堆肥中的Zn和Cu均可以被植物吸收,随着污泥堆肥施用量的增加,草坪草对Zn和Cu的吸收量增大,但当污泥堆肥施用量超过一定阈值时,草坪草吸收zn和cu不再增加,甚至减少;对于不同的草坪草,这一阈值有所不同。植物对zn和cu的吸收量只占土壤中zn和cu减少量的5％左右。根据生物富集系数（BCF）的计算结果推测,污泥堆肥的施用对土壤环境的影响大于对植物体内累积zn和Cu的影响。     

The effects of ammonium sulphate and urea upon egg hatching and miracidial survival of Schistosoma mansoni

The effects of various concentrations of ammonium sulphate and urea on egg hatching and miracidial survival of S. mansoni were tested in order to determine if the use of these fertilizers in the ricelands of the Republic of Cameroon could affect the transmission of schistosomiasis. Results indicate that hatching of eggs and survival of miracidia varied with concentrations of tested chemicals and times of exposure. Exposure of S. mansoni eggs to 0.20%-1.00% ammonium sulphate or to 0.50%-4.00% urea reduced their ability to hatch and produce miracidia. A chemical concentration of 1.00% ammonium sulphate or 4.00% urea was found to be sufficient to produce complete inhibition of hatching. High concentrations of both chemicals not only inhibited miracidial emergence but also may be ovocidal. Results obtained from miracidial survival tests indicated that LC5, LC50 and LC95 values for ammonium sulphate were 0.07%, 0.80% and 10.61% after 2 hours of exposure; 0.03%, 0.16% and 0.90% after 4 hours of exposure; and 0.30%, 0.20% and 0.40% after 6 hours of exposure respectively. Similar statistical analyses revealed that the LC5, LC50 and LC95 values for urea were 0.22%, 1.90% and 16.25% after 2 hours of exposure; 0.28%, 0.57% and 1.14% after 4 hours of exposure; and 0.13%, 0.27% and 0.57% after 6 hours of exposure respectively. Although the two fertilizers exerted some adverse effects on S. mansoni eggs and miracidia at relatively high concentrations, neither of them was found to be of practical value. Ammonium sulphate and urea concentrations effective in killing S. mansoni eggs and miracidia were about one to two orders of magnitude greater than the actual field application rates.     

水生植物酸碱预处理对厌氧发酵联产氢气-甲烷的影响

采用酸碱预处理乌梁素海典型沉水植物龙须眼子菜和挺水植物芦苇,通过厌氧发酵动力学分析、还原糖变化及微观结构解析,研究酸碱预处理对水生植物厌氧发酵联产氢气-甲烷的影响。实验结果表明,酸碱预处理后水生植物厌氧发酵联产氢气-甲烷两阶段累积产气量、氢气及甲烷含量均显著提高,酸处理效果优于碱处理。采用0．5mol／LHCl预处理龙须眼子菜效果最佳,最大氢气、甲烷含量分别达42．65％和52．82％,产氢气速率为4．118mL／h,产甲烷速率最高达14．199mL／h。芦苇经1mol／LHCl预处理效果最佳,最高氢气、甲烷含量分别为32．22％和65．26％。扫描电镜微观结构分析表明,酸碱预处理可显著破坏芦苇、龙须眼子菜的纤维素结构,有效增加植物与微生物接触面积,有利于厌氧发酵联产氢气-甲烷工艺的快速启动和稳定运行。     

Effect of binary combination of deltamethrin+MGK-264 on the levels of phospholipid and lipid peroxidation in the snail Lymnaea acuminata

Effect of sublethal treatment of (40% and 60% of 48 h LC50) of deltamethrin+MGK on phospholipid level and rate of lipid peroxidation in nervous and foot tissue of Lymnaea acuminata were studied. Maximum reduction in phospholipid (24.10%) level and increase in rate of lipid peroxidation (586.8%) were observed in foot tissue of snail exposed to 60% of 48 h LC50 of deltamethrin+MGK 264 for 96 h. Alterations in the levels of phospholipids and rate of lipid peroxidation were time and concentration dependent. Use of MGK-264 with deltamethrin increases the toxicity of deltamethrin and their action on membrane phospholipids and rate of lipid peroxidation.     

固定污染源污水排放口及监测点位规范设置技术

为规范我国固定污染源污水排放口及监测点位设置,以保障污水样品采集和流量监测的准确性与代表性,在调研与查阅国内外技术文献的基础上,总结了我国现有固定污染源污水排放口和监测点位设置中存在的主要问题,探讨了国内外相关标准规定的缺陷和不足;基于保障实际监测工作需要和便于监督管理的原则,兼顾流量监测的准确性、样品采集的代表性与监测人员采样安全考虑,探讨了排污单位污水排放口与监测点位数量、位置设置技术。结果表明：排污单位不得通过暗管排放污水,应在厂界10 m以内设置1个污水总排放口和1个雨水总排放口及监测点位,排放第1类污染物及其他有毒有害或需优先控制的污染物指标时需同时在车间或车间处理设施出口设置排放口和监测点位;污水日排放量超过50 t·d⁻¹的排放口应按国家标准规范要求选择修建或安装适宜的标准化量水堰槽;其他排放口应修建满足污水采样监测和流量监测、长度不少于3 m的顺直排水明渠及高度不少于0.1 m的垂直跌水落差;通过压力管道排放污水时,应修建长度不少于15倍管径且需时刻满管的直管段,以安装管道流量计和取样阀门。排污单位须设置污水排放口环境保护图形标志与监测点位信息标志,制定污水排放口和监测点位的保障监测安全的防护措施及日常维护和管理的规定。污水排放口和监测点位的有关构筑物及相关设施应作为环境保护设施的组成部分,与主体工程“同时设计、同时施工、同时投产和使用”,且应作为建设项目竣工环境保护验收的必要条件。相关研究结果可为污水排放口和监测点位规范化整治提供技术依据,并为保证污水采样、监测与监管的安全有效实施提供技术保障。     

盐酸浸出提取赤泥中铝和铁的工艺条件优化

系统研究盐酸浸出赤泥中铝和铁的过程,考察酸浸温度、盐酸浓度、酸浸时间、液固比以及赤泥粒度对铝、铁浸出率的影响。单因素实验和正交实验结果得出,在影响浸出率的酸浸温度、盐酸浓度、酸浸时间和液固比对铁、铝的浸出率的影响几个因素中,酸浸温度和盐酸浓度的影响最大,液固比和浸出时间其次。盐酸酸浸的最佳工艺条件为：赤泥粒度150 μm、酸浸温度80 ℃、盐酸浓度10 mol·L-1、液固比8∶1（V/m）、浸出时间150 min,此时铝的浸出率为96.7%,铁的浸出率为95.1%,铁铝总浸出率96.0%。     

Synopsis of the temporal variation of particulate matter composition and size

A synopsis of the detailed temporal variation of the size and number distribution of particulate matter (PM) and its chemical composition on the basis of measurements performed by several regional research consortia funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) PM Supersite Program is presented. This program deployed and evaluated a variety of research and emerging commercial measurement technologies to investigate the physical and chemical properties of atmospheric aerosols at a level of detail never before achieved. Most notably these studies demonstrated that systematic size-segregated measurements of mass, number, and associated chemical composition of the fine (PM2.5) and ultrafine (PM0.1) fraction of ambient aerosol with a time resolution down to minutes and less is achievable. A wealth of new information on the temporal variation of aerosol has been added to the existing knowledge pool that can be mined to resolve outstanding research and policy-related questions. This paper explores the nature of temporal variations (on time scales from several minutes to hours) in the chemical and physical properties of PM and its implications in the identification of PM formation processes, and source attribution (primary versus secondary), the contribution of local versus transported PM and the development of effective PM control strategies. The PM Supersite results summarized indicate that location, time of day, and season significantly influence not only the mass and chemical composition but also the size-resolved chemical/elemental composition of PM. Ambient measurements also show that ultrafine particles have different compositions and make up only a small portion of the PM mass concentration compared with inhalable coarse and fine particles, but their number concentration is significantly larger than their coarse or fine counterparts. PM size classes show differences in the relative amounts of nitrates, sulfates, crustal materials, and most especially carbon as well as variations in seasonal and diurnal patterns.     

生活垃圾处理的低碳化研究进展

在“碳中和”背景下,对国内外生活垃圾处理低碳化发展的现状及研究进展进行了回顾与研究。分析了生活垃圾填埋、焚烧、堆肥处理等过程中的温室气体排放问题,并对碳排放的主要核算方法及工具进行了综述。结合“无废城市”、循环经济等先进理念,对我国生活垃圾低碳化治理的政策法规和技术路径进行了梳理。为准确核证垃圾处理过程的碳排量,应建立符合我国实际的碳排放监测、报告、核查标准体系。宜采取减量化、资源化和系统化的管理策略与技术手段,提高资源、能源的回收利用率,以促进减污降碳协同增效。各地应充分考虑其经济发展水平、垃圾产量组分和处理利用能力等,通过全生命周期的经济、社会与生态环境等多目标综合分析,采取优化组合的分类处理技术路线。     

我国污染地块安全开发利用模式与安全性评价方法

随着对污染地块安全开发利用认识的不断深入,污染地块安全开发利用模式及开发利用的安全性评价日益受到重视。从广义和狭义2个层面分别阐述了污染地块安全开发利用模式的含义,并重点对“四分”总体修复策略和“五个特性”技术策略共同构成的狭义层面上的安全开发利用模式进行了阐释,分析了影响模式选择的5个影响因素。在此基础上,构建出一套包含5个一级指标、10个二级指标的污染地块开发利用“安全性”评价指标体系,提出了各指标的评价方法。本研究旨在提出对我国在污染地块安全开发利用模式及安全性评价方法开展深入研究,并为污染地块修复技术的比选和评价、开展修复（管控）工程的评价提供参考,进而推动我国污染地块的绿色可持续发展。     

电絮凝对电厂循环冷却水中硬度的去除

以某电厂冷却塔循环冷却水为处理对象,利用电絮凝法,以铝板为牺牲阳极去除水中的Ca²⁺和Mg²⁺,分别考察了电絮凝过程中不同电流密度、电解时间、溶液初始pH、阳极极板数量对总硬度去除率的影响。结果表明：增加电流密度、延长电解时间有利于Ca²⁺和Mg²⁺的去除;当电流密度为10 mA·cm⁻²,电解时间为90 min时,Ca²⁺和Mg²⁺去除率分别达到93.5%和95.8%,总硬度去除率为94.6%;相对于酸性和中性条件,碱性条件更有利于Ca²⁺和Mg²⁺的去除,当初始pH为10时,Ca²⁺和Mg²⁺去除率分别达到85.4%和97.7%,总硬度去除率为93.5%;随极板数量的增加,Ca²⁺和总硬度去除率均有所提高;投加Na₂CO₃有利于Ca²⁺和总硬度的去除。上述结果可为进一步提高电絮凝过程中总硬度的去除率提供参考。     

Enantioselectivity of racemic metolachlor and S-metolachlor in maize seedlings

Chiral herbicides may have enantioselective effects on plants. In this study, we assessed and compared the enantioselectivity of the chiral herbicides rac-metolachlor and S-metolachlor to maize seedlings. The superoxide dismutase activity (SOD) activity of roots and stem leaves treated by rac-metolachlor was 1.38 and 1.99 times that of roots and stem leaves treated by S-metolachlor. The peroxidase activity (POD) activity of roots and stem leaves was 1.48 and 2.79 times that of roots and stem leaves treated by S-metolachlor, respectively, while the catalase activity (CAT) activity was 4.77 and 8.37 times greater, respectively. The Hill reaction activity of leaves treated by rac-metolachlor were 1.45, 1.33, and 1.14 times those treated by S-metolachlor with treatments of 18.6, 37.2, and 74.4 μM. The differences observed between treatments of rac- and S-metolachlor were significant. Significant differences in maize seedling morphology were also observed between rac- and S-metolachlor treatments. The degradation rate of S-metolachlor in roots was greater than that of rac-metolachlor. The half-lives of rac- and S-metolachlor were 80.6 and 60.3 h at 18.6 μM; 119.5 and 90 h at 37.2 μM; and 169 and 164.8 h at 74.4 μM, respectively. Using the liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method, hydroxymetolachlor, deschlorometolachlor and deschlorometolachlor propanol were considered to be possible metabolites. We determined the enantioselective toxicity of rac- and S-metolachlor to maize and speculated on the proposed metabolic pathway of metolachlor in maize roots. These results will help to develop an understanding of the proper application of rac- and S-metolachlor in crops, and give some information for environmental safety evaluation of rac- and S-metolachlor.     

基于异构载体的海产品暂养水的协同处理

针对海产品暂养水盐度高、低温环境下靶向菌难驯化、难富集等问题,构建了微生物驯化富集装置,采用玉米芯作为异构载体与碳源,在低温条件下,通过检测水质与微生物群落结构等指标,探究了海产品暂养水对优势菌种演替的推动作用以及微生物群落结构与异构载体的相关性,并对污染物降解与水处理效果进行了分析评价。结果表明：在低温条件下,海产品暂养水对微生物的驯化富集效果较佳;以属水平为例,经过驯化富集培养的菌液主要以假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas)、拟杆菌属(Bacteroides)和气单胞菌属(Aeromonas)为主,同时异构碳源的构造也对微生物的生长起到一定的促进作用;挂膜后的异构碳源对高盐暂养水的处理效果较佳,脱氮率达到(73.46±0.55)%,除磷率为(40.03±0.55)%,除沫率为(82.14±0.23)%。该装置在投入靶向菌与异构碳源后,提高了对高盐暂养水的处理能力;同时,玉米芯作为碳源供给,其缓释效果能够克服能量的过释并减少能耗,保证微生物的存活与运行。研究探讨了微生物与异构载体协同处理高盐暂养水的效果及其耦合效应,为高盐暂养水处理技术的创新与农用废弃物的回收利用提供了参考。     

鸟粪石负载硅藻土对土壤铅和金霉素的同步修复作用

使用镁盐改性硅藻土回收沼液中氮磷制得鸟粪石负载硅藻土 (Struvite-loaded diatomite,SD) ,将其用于土壤中铅 (Pb) 和金霉素 (CTC) 复合污染的原位修复。采用吸附-解吸实验评估SD对Pb和CTC迁移特性的影响,同时,通过测定土壤pH和酸缓冲能力、土壤Pb和CTC的有效态和形态、土壤速效磷和微生物群落结构变化等考察SD对土壤Pb和CTC的钝化能力,借助SEM、XRD、FT-IR等表征手段揭示其修复机理。结果表明,SD能有效降低Pb和CTC在土壤中的迁移特性;SD投加质量分数为3%,稳定49 d后,土壤酸中和能力提升1倍以上,土壤有效态Pb和CTC含量分别降低26%和56%,酸溶态Pb占比降低10%,残渣态Pb占比升高18%, CTC的水溶态和松散结合态占比分别降低5%和13%,紧密结合态CTC升高11%,一定程度上降低了Pb和CTC在土壤中的生物有效性;SD的投加可提升土壤速效磷含量,提高土壤微生物的相对丰度和多样性,尤其增加酸杆菌门 (Acidobacteria) 、绿弯菌门 (Chloroflexi) 和芽单胞菌门 (Gemmatimonadetes) 的相对丰度,降低放线菌门 (Actinobacteria) 和厚壁菌门 (Firmicutes) 的相对丰度;SD对土壤Pb和CTC的钝化机制主要为吸附和沉淀的协同作用。该研究可为污水氮磷资源化利用和重金属抗生素复合污染土壤原位修复提供参考。     

Study on the photocatalytic reduction of dichromate and photocatalytic oxidation of dichlorvos

In this paper, dichromate and dichlorvos are selected as the deputies of inorganic and organic pollutants, respectively, and TiO2/beads is used as a photocatalyst. The effects of various parameters, such as the amount of the photocatalyst, H2O2 concentration, metal ions, anions, pH value, and organic compounds on the photocatalytic reduction of dichromate and photocatalytic oxidation of dichlorvos are studied. From the studies, the differences of the parameters effect on the photocatalytic degradation of organic and inorganic pollutants are obtained. The results show that the optimum amount of the photocatalyst used is 6.0 g cm(-3) for the photocatalytic reactions. With the addition of a small amount of H2O2, the photocatalytic reduction of dichromate is inhibited while the photocatalytic oxidation of dichlorvos is accelerated. With the addition of trace amounts of Fe3+ or Cu2+, both the reactions are accelerated, and with the addition of Zn2+ and Na+, no obvious effects on the reactions are observed. Acidic solution is favorable for the photocatalytic reduction of dichromate; and acidic and alkaline solutions are favorable for the photocatalytic oxidation of dichlorvos. Adding SO4(2-), the photocatalytic oxidation is accelerated and adding Cl- the reaction is inhibited; and with the addition of trace amounts of SO4(2-), Cl- and NO3-, no obvious effects on the photocatalytic reduction of dichromate are observed. With the addition of methanol and toluene, the photocatalytic reduction of dichromate is accelerated, and the photocatalytic oxidation of dichlorvos is inhibited. The possible roles of the additives on the reactions are also discussed.     

pH和有机质对铬渣污染土壤中Cr赋存形态的影响

选用3种不同的铬渣污染土壤作为试验样,通过调节其pH和有机质含量,并采用碱消解-共沉淀法和改良BCR顺序提取法,研究了pH和有机质含量对土壤中铬的价态及形态的影响。结果表明,总体上Cr(Ⅵ)含量随pH降低和有机质投加量增大而减小,Cr(Ⅲ)则增加,但土1各水平间差异均显著(F8.89),土2和土3只有部分水平间差异显著。同时,随pH降低和有机质投加量增大,酸可提取态Cr含量减小,可氧化态Cr增加,可还原态略有增加,表明酸性条件和有机质有利于Cr(Ⅵ)的还原和酸可提取态Cr向可还原态和可氧化态Cr的转化。     

A review of biofouling and its control in membrane separation bioreactors.

Membrane separation technology is increasingly becoming an important innovation in biological wastewater treatment. Biofouling of the membrane is a major factor affecting the efficient and economic operation of membrane separation bioreactors (MBRs). This review summarizes the state-of-the-art progress in understanding the mechanisms and factors affecting membrane biofouling and the strategies for biofouling control. Biofouling mechanisms include the adsorption of soluble and suspended extracellular polymers on membrane surfaces and in membrane pores, the clogging of membrane pore structure by fine colloidal particles and cell debris, and the adhesion and deposition of sludge cake on membrane surfaces. Design and operating conditions of membrane modules and materials, hydrodynamic conditions in MBRs, process and environmental conditions of activated sludge systems, and the physicochemical properties of the wastewater are the dominant factors determining membrane biofouling. Current strategies to control biofouling include periodic relaxation, backwashing, chemical cleaning, and possible manipulation of hydrodynamic conditions and sludge properties. Achieving full integration of MBRs in wastewater treatment technology requires further research and development. Fundamental information on the bacteria, colloid, and membrane interaction, developed through multimethod and multiscale approaches, is particularly needed.