The Evolution of the Environmental Quality Concept: From the US EPA Red Book to the European Water Framework Directive

- DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/espr2006.01.003 Background Water Quality Criteria were firstly defined in the 1970s by the EPA in the USA and the EIFAC in Europe, recognizing the need for protecting water quality in order to allow the use of water resources by man. In the 1990s, the European Commission emphasized the importance of safeguarding structure and function of biologic communities. These approaches were chemically-based. The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) substantially changes the concept of Water Quality, by assuming that a water body needs to be protected as an environmental good and not as a resource to be exploited. In this frame, the biological-ecological quality assumes a prevailing role. Main Features The Water Quality concept introduced by the WFD is a challenge for environmental sciences. Reference conditions should be defined for different typologies of water bodies and for different European ecoregions. Suitable indicators should be developed in order to quantify ecological status and to define what a 'good' ecological status is. Procedures should be developed for correlating the deviation from a good ecological to the effects of multiple stressors on function and structure of the ecosystem. The protection of biodiversity becomes a key objective. In this frame, the traditional procedures for ecotoxicological risk assessment, mainly based on laboratory testing, should be overcome by more site-specific approaches, taking into account the characteristics and the homeostatic capabilities of natural communities. In the paper an overview of the present knowledge and of the new trends in ecotoxicology to get these objectives will be given. A procedure is suggested based on the concept of Species Sensitivity Distribution (SSD). Recommendations and Perspective . The need for more site-specific and ecologically-oriented approaches in ecotoxicology is strongly recommended. The development of new tools for implementing the concept of 'Stress Ecology' has been recently proposed by van Straalen (2003). In the same time, more 'cological realism'is needed in practically applicable procedures for regulatory purposes.     

Governance of Water Resources in the Phase of Change: A Case Study of the Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive in Sweden

In this article, focusing on the ongoing implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive, we analyze some of the opportunities and challenges for a sustainable governance of water resources from an ecosystem management perspective. In the face of uncertainty and change, the ecosystem approach as a holistic and integrated management framework is increasingly recognized. The ongoing implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) could be viewed as a reorganization phase in the process of change in institutional arrangements and ecosystems. In this case study from the Northern Baltic Sea River Basin District, Sweden, we focus in particular on data and information management from a multi-level governance perspective from the local stakeholder to the River Basin level. We apply a document analysis, hydrological mapping, and GIS models to analyze some of the institutional framework created for the implementation of the WFD. The study underlines the importance of institutional arrangements that can handle variability of local situations and trade-offs between solutions and priorities on different hierarchical levels.     

Land-use and agriculture in Denmark around year 1900 and the quest for EU Water Framework Directive reference conditions in coastal waters

The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) aims to protect the ecological status of coastal waters. To establish acceptable boundaries between good and moderate ecological status, the WFD calls for reference conditions practically undisturbed by human impact. For Denmark, the nitrogen (N) concentrations present around year 1900 have been suggested to represent reference conditions. As the N load of coastal waters relates closely to runoff from land, any reduction in load links to agricultural activity. We challenge the current use of historical N balances to establish WFD reference conditions and initiate an alternative approach based on parish-level land-use statistics collected 1896/1900 and N concentrations in root zone percolates from experiments with year 1900-relevant management. This approach may be more widely applicable for landscapes with detailed historic information on agricultural activity. Using this approach, we find an average N concentration in root zone percolates that is close to that of current agriculture. Thus, considering Danish coastal waters to be practically unaffected by human activity around year 1900 remains futile as 75% of the land area was subject to agricultural activity with a substantial potential for N loss to the environment. It appears unlikely that the ecological state of coastal waters around year 1900 may serve as WFD reference condition.     

The link between pharmaceuticals and cyanobacteria: a review regarding ecotoxicological,ecological, and sanitary aspects

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Cyanobacteria are important for ecosystem functioning, but eutrophication may affect the surrounding biome by losing ecosystem services and/or through...     

Assessing reference conditions according to the European Water Framework Directive using modelling and analysis of historical data: an example from Randers Fjord,Denmark

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires the definition of reference conditions, i.e. pristine conditions, for all surface waters. As the present state of Danish coastal waters cannot be referred to as pristine, reference conditions have to be assessed by analysis of historical data or by the use of models. Using Randers Fjord as an example, the aim of this work was i) to demonstrate possibilities and restrictions of assessing reference conditions by historical data and by modelling; and ii) to demonstrate how ecological conditions have changed along with eutrophication. The ample historical data from Randers Fjord allowed us to assess reference conditions with respect to benthic macrophytes and benthic fauna. Models of varying complexity enabled us to assess reference conditions for nutrients, chlorophyll a, Secchi depth, and eelgrass. We conclude that models can be a useful supplement to assess reference conditions, though they are presently restricted by the lack of quantitative links between eutrophication and species composition.     

Solute transport in crystalline rocks at Äspö — II: Blind predictions, inverse modelling and lessons learnt from test STT1

Based on the results from detailed structural and petrological characterisation and on up-scaled laboratory values for sorption and diffusion, blind predictions were made for the STT1 dipole tracer test performed in the Swedish Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory. The tracers used were nonsorbing, such as uranine and tritiated water, weakly sorbing ²²Na⁺, ⁸⁵Sr²⁺, ⁴⁷Ca²⁺and more strongly sorbing ⁸⁶Rb⁺, ¹³³Ba²⁺, ¹³⁷Cs⁺.Our model consists of two parts: (1) a flow part based on a 2D-streamtube formalism accounting for the natural background flow field and with an underlying homogeneous and isotropic transmissivity field and (2) a transport part in terms of the dual porosity medium approach which is linked to the flow part by the flow porosity.The calibration of the model was done using the data from one single uranine breakthrough (PDT3). The study clearly showed that matrix diffusion into a highly porous material, fault gouge, had to be included in our model evidenced by the characteristic shape of the breakthrough curve and in line with geological observations.After the disclosure of the measurements, it turned out that, in spite of the simplicity of our model, the prediction for the nonsorbing and weakly sorbing tracers was fairly good. The blind prediction for the more strongly sorbing tracers was in general less accurate. The reason for the good predictions is deemed to be the result of the choice of a model structure strongly based on geological observation. The breakthrough curves were inversely modelled to determine in situ values for the transport parameters and to draw consequences on the model structure applied. For good fits, only one additional fracture family in contact with cataclasite had to be taken into account, but no new transport mechanisms had to be invoked. The in situ values for the effective diffusion coefficient for fault gouge are a factor of 2–15 larger than the laboratory data. For cataclasite, both data sets have values comparable to laboratory data. The extracted K_d values for the weakly sorbing tracers are larger than Swedish laboratory data by a factor of 25–60, but agree within a factor of 3–5 for the more strongly sorbing nuclides. The reason for the inconsistency concerning K_ds is the use of fresh granite in the laboratory studies, whereas tracers in the field experiments interact only with fracture fault gouge and to a lesser extent with cataclasite both being mineralogically very different (e.g. clay-bearing) from the intact wall rock.     

Indigenous knowledge informing management of tropical forests: the link between rhythms in plant secondary chemistry and lunar cycles

This research used knowledge of the indigenous practice of timing nontimber forest product harvest with the full moon to demonstrate that chemicals controlling the decomposition rate of foliage fluctuate with the lunar cycle and may have developed as a result of plant-herbivore interactions. Indigenous knowledge suggests that leaves harvested during the full moon are more durable. Palm leaves harvested during the full moon had higher total C, hemicellulose, complex C and lower Ca concentrations. These chemical changes should make palm leaves less susceptible to herbivory and more durable when harvested during the full moon. This study proposes a mechanism by which plants in the tropics minimize foliage herbivory and influence the decomposition rates of senesced leaves and their durability, especially during the full moon. This research supports the need to use natural life cycles in managing forests and provides a scientific basis for an indigenous community's harvesting practice.     

Phytoremediation of contaminated soils and groundwater: lessons from the field

Background, aim, and scope

The use of plants and associated microorganisms to remove, contain, inactivate, or degrade harmful environmental contaminants (generally termed phytoremediation) and to revitalize contaminated sites is gaining more and more attention. In this review, prerequisites for a successful remediation will be discussed. The performance of phytoremediation as an environmental remediation technology indeed depends on several factors including the extent of soil contamination, the availability and accessibility of contaminants for rhizosphere microorganisms and uptake into roots (bioavailability), and the ability of the plant and its associated microorganisms to intercept, absorb, accumulate, and/or degrade the contaminants. The main aim is to provide an overview of existing field experience in Europe concerning the use of plants and their associated microorganisms whether or not combined with amendments for the revitalization or remediation of contaminated soils and undeep groundwater. Contaminations with trace elements (except radionuclides) and organics will be considered. Because remediation with transgenic organisms is largely untested in the field, this topic is not covered in this review. Brief attention will be paid to the economical aspects, use, and processing of the biomass.

Conclusions and perspectives

It is clear that in spite of a growing public and commercial interest and the success of several pilot studies and field scale applications more fundamental research still is needed to better exploit the metabolic diversity of the plants themselves, but also to better understand the complex interactions between contaminants, soil, plant roots, and microorganisms (bacteria and mycorrhiza) in the rhizosphere. Further, more data are still needed to quantify the underlying economics, as a support for public acceptance and last but not least to convince policy makers and stakeholders (who are not very familiar with such techniques).     

A link between lead and cadmium kinetic speciation in seawater and accumulation by the green alga Ulva lactuca

In this work, studies on the bioaccumulation of Cd and Pb by Ulva lactuca at different sites of Gulf San Jorge (Patagonia, Argentina) are presented. Higher values of bioaccumulated Cd were found in Punta Maqueda - a site believed to serve as a control - in comparison to those in Punta Borja, a place highly exposed to urban and industrial activities. Consequently; the labile fractions of Cd and Pb in seawater were determined with a flow injection-preconcentration manifold interfaced to a graphite furnace-atomic absorption spectrometer (FI-GFAAS). The results obtained by kinetic speciation showed that the variable that correctly explains heavy metals accumulation in the alga, is the labile metal fraction in seawater. We propose to use an enhancement ratio - on the basis of the kinetically labile metal fraction - for calculation of the metal accumulated by the alga relative to its environment.     

From bioavailability to risk assessment of polluted soil using snails: link between excess transfer and inhibition of sexual maturation

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - An accurate assessment of the environmental risk of soils contaminated by metal(loid)s (MEs) requires quantifying exposure and knowing the toxicity of...     

第三产业清洁生产指标体系

结合中国第三产业的发展状况，提出了风景区、酒店、高校的清洁生产内容，以及相应的清洁生产评价指标，指出第三产业涉及的行业多，各行业的清洁生产内容亦较多，应针对不同行业，建立相应的评价指标，完善评价指标体系，以促第三产业全面实行清洁生产，实施可持续发展战略。     

Effectiveness of Marine Protected Areas in Managing the Drivers of Ecosystem Change: A Case of Mnazi Bay Marine Park, Tanzania

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are being promoted in Tanzania to mitigate the drivers of ecosystem change such as overfishing and other anthropogenic impacts on marine resources. The effectiveness of MPAs in managing those drivers was assessed in three ecological zones, seafront, mangrove, and riverine of Mnazi Bay Marine Park, using Participatory Community Analysis techniques, questionnaire survey, checklist and fishery resource assessment methods. Eleven major drivers of ecosystem change were identified. Resource dependence had a major effect in all ecological zones of the park. The results indicated that the park’s legislations/regulations, management procedures, and conservation efforts are reasonably effective in managing its resources. The positive signs accrued from conservation efforts have been realized by the communities in terms of increased catch/income, awareness and compliance. However, some natural and anthropogenic drivers continued to threaten the park’s sustainability. Furthermore, implementation of resource use and benefit sharing mechanisms still remained a considerable challenge to be addressed.     

Inorganic arsenic speciation at river basin scales: The Tinto and Odiel Rivers in the Iberian Pyrite Belt, SW Spain

The Tinto and Odiel rivers are heavily affected by acid mine drainage from mining areas in the Iberian Pyrite Belt. In this work we have conducted a study along these rivers where surface water samples have been collected. Field measurements, total dissolved metals and Fe and inorganic As speciation analysis were performed. The average total concentration of As in the Tinto river (1975 μg L⁻¹) is larger than in the Odiel river (441 μg L⁻¹); however, the mean concentration of As(III) is almost four times higher in the Odiel. In wet seasons the mean pH levels of both rivers (2.4 and 3.2 for the Tinto and Odiel, respectively) increase slightly and the amount of dissolved total arsenic tend to decrease, while the As(III)/(V) ratio strongly increase. Besides, the concentration of the reduced As species increase along the water course. As a result, As(III)/(V) ratio can be up to 100 times higher in the lower part of the basins. An estimation of the As(III) load transported by both rivers into the Atlantic Ocean has been performed, resulting in about 60 kg yr⁻¹ and 2.7 t yr⁻¹ by the Tinto and Odiel rivers, respectively.     

PBDEs and PBBs in the adipose tissue of women from Spain

Polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polybromobiphenyls (PBBs) were investigated in adipose tissue of women living in Southeastern Spain. Mean Sigma PBDE (BDE 28, 75, 71, 47, 66, 77, 100, 119, 99, 85, 154, 153, 138, and 183) and Sigma PBB (PBB 18, 29, 31, 22, 38, 37, 53, 52, 49, 75, 80, 56, 77, 103, 101, 155, 154, 153, and 169) levels were 3.85 and 0.36 ng/g of lipid, respectively. Among PBDEs, congeners 153, 47, 183, 99, and 100 were the most frequent and abundant and together constituted 96% of the total amount of PBDEs in adipose tissue. Concentrations of PBDEs in this population were similar to those reported in other parts of Spain and in Swedish and Belgium populations but lower than those found in other Western countries. Among PBB congeners studied, PBB 153 presented the highest concentrations and contributed 79% of all PBBs. There are no published data on PBB congeners in adipose tissues of the Spanish population for comparison, but the levels found were similar to those described in other European countries. Further research is needed to determine trends in human exposure to PBDEs and PBBs and to explore putative effects on human health.     

Dynamic heterogeneous analysis of pollution reduction in SANEM countries: lessons from the energy-investment interaction

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - This scientific enquiry examines the role of capital investment in the energy-pollution model in SANEM countries. The methodology is based on the...     

The National Ambient Air Monitoring Strategy: Rethinking the Role of National Networks

Abstract

A current re-engineering of the United States routine ambient monitoring networks intended to improve the balance in addressing both regulatory and scientific objectives is addressed in this paper. Key attributes of these network modifications include the addition of collocated instruments to produce multiple pollutant characterizations across a range of representative urban and rural locations in a new network referred to as the National Core Monitoring Network (NCore). The NCore parameters include carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), reactive nitrogen (NO_y), ozone (O₃), and ammonia (NH₃) gases and the major fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) aerosol components (ions, elemental and organic carbon fractions, and trace metals). The addition of trace gas instruments, deployed at existing chemical speciation sites and designed to capture concentrations well below levels of national air quality standards, is intended to support both long-term epidemiological studies and regional-scale air quality model evaluation. In addition to designing the multiple pollutant NCore network, steps were taken to assess the current networks on the basis of spatial coverage and redundancy criteria, and mechanisms were developed to facilitate incorporation of continuously operating particulate matter instruments.     

Lead shot pellets in the Ebro delta, Spain: densities in sediments and prevalence of exposure in waterfowl

Lead (Pb) poisoning has been found to be a serious problem for waterfowl in some southern European countries, but few studies have been conducted in Spain. In order to obtain these data, studies were made in the Ebro delta, a Spanish Ramsar site, during 1992 and 1993. Lead shot densities in the first 20 cm of sediment ranged from < 8 900 to 2 661 000 shot ha(-1). A similar proportion of birds had lead shot in the gizzard and elevated liver lead (> 5 microg g(-1) DW) concentrations. Northern pintail and common pochard (both with declining populations in Europe) showed the highest levels of shot ingestion, with 70.8 and 69.2%, respectively. Body condition index in the northern pintail was negatively correlated with the number of pellets in the gizzard and liver Pb concentration. Levels of exposure were higher than in other northern countries of the western Palearctic flyway, where lead shot have been banned recently.     

Human exposure to dioxins through the diet in Catalonia,Spain: carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk

The main objectives of this study were to estimate the dietary intake of dioxins by the population of Catalonia, Spain, to determine which food groups showed the greatest contribution to this intake, and to assess the health risks potentially associated with the dietary dioxin intake. From June to August 2000, food samples were randomly acquired in seven cities of Catalonia. Dioxin concentrations were determined in 108 samples belonging to the following groups: vegetables, fruits, pulses, cereals, fish and shellfish, meats and meat products, eggs, milk and dairy products, and oils and fats. Estimates of average daily food consumption were obtained from recent studies. Total dietary intake of dioxins for the general population of Catalonia was estimated to be 95.4 pg WHO-TEQ/day (78.4 pg I-TEQ/day), with fish and shellfish (31%), diary products (25%), cereals (14%) and meat (13%) showing the greatest percentages of contribution to dioxin intake. The contribution of all the rest of food groups to the total dietary intake was under 20%. The non-carcinogenic risk index of dioxin intake through the diet was in the range 0.34-1.36, while the carcinogenic risk level was 1,360 excess cancer over a lifetime of 70 years. Our results corroborate the decreasing tendency in dietary intake of dioxins found in recent studies (2000-2001) from various countries.     

The Dismantling of End-of-Life Vehicles in Estonia Before Putting into Effect the Directive 2000/53/EC (3 pp)

Background, Aims and Scope When joining the European Union on 1st May 2004, Estonia had to conform its legislation to the European Union legislation. In relation with that, also the treatment requirements on end-of-life vehicles proceeding from Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 were established in Estonia for the first time. Since this area was not regulated with law beforehand, there was not any information available about it. The aim of the current survey was to ascertain the condition of scrap yards in mid 2004. In addition to that, also to identify the number of scrap yards operating in Estonia, to classify these by the number of dismantled vehicles and the potential environmental hazard, and to map the locations of car dismantling companies and evaluate their compliance with the valid requirements. Methods The companies that have been registered in the Commercial Registry under the activity code 503090-end-of-life vehicle dismantling were visited and visually reviewed. During the visits, the compliance of scrap yards with the existing requirements was evaluated and it was also attempted to identify how environmentally sound the dismantling technology of every scrap yard owner is. Results and Discussion Altogether, 63 scrap yards operated in Estonia by mid 2004. Twelve of them dismantled more than 100 vehicles, 13 of them 51-99 vehicles and 38 up to 50 vehicles a year. The total annual market capacity on dismantling of vehicles in Estonia is considered to be approx. 10,000 units. There are very few companies dealing only with car dismantling as the main business. Most scrap-yard owners also offer side services, e.g. haulage, car repair and maintenance. The dismantlers are interested in the selling of second-hand spare parts and scrap metal. Only one company out of 63 complied with all the requirements enacted by the relevant decision of the Estonian Minister of Environment. The rest of the scrap yards did not meet the requirements on the site on storage and treatment nor did they have the hazardous waste handling licence or the waste permit. Of the requirements established for the site for storage of end-of-life vehicles, 97% of the scrap yards were surrounded with a fence, 67% had a 24-hour guard, 45% had covered the areas with waterproof cover, but only 3% had an oil trap. Sites for treatment were in a somewhat better condition, these were mostly situated inside the buildings, where floors were covered with waterproof covers. Most of the dismantlers collected the waste oil and waste fluids into separate vessels, but there were a number of dismantlers who did not know of existence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in car air conditioning systems and the availability of mercury in sensors belonging in passenger safety systems. Proceeding from the general condition of the scrap yard, the rest of 62 scarp yards were distributed between two empirical parameters - 'rather environmentally hazardous' or 'rather not environmentally hazardous'. As a matter of fact, 17% of scrap yards turned out 'rather environmentally hazardous'. Conclusion Out of the scrap yards operating in Estonia, only one is compliant with the requirements set up by Directive 2000/53/EC. Another 62 appeared during the review to be sites of potential environmental pollution. In order to comply with environmental requirements and get the hazardous waste treatment license, the scrap yard owners have to invest into state-of-the-art dismantling and environment protection equipment. The main obstacle to reach the environmentally sound scrap-yard is the high investment cost and the black market for spare parts. Recommendation and Outlook As the correction of the market in end-of-life vehicle treatment started after the adoption of Directive 2000/53/EC, the environmental authorities have to look after the ongoing correction. It is because there is still a demand for cheap spare parts and it makes it attractive to dismantle the vehicles out of scrap-yards by licensees.