Mercury accumulation in surface sediments of salt marshes of the Bay of Fundy

Mercury contamination in Canada's Bay of Fundy is a priority concern because of elevated levels observed in fish, birds and wildlife. Salt marshes constitute an important part of the Bay's coastline and are potential stores of mercury for the region. We measured the amount of mercury accumulated over a 5-yr period from 1997 to 2002 in surface sediments of seven salt marshes along the New Brunswick coast of the Bay. The seven study sites extended from outer to inner Bay, spanning a gradient in tidal range (6-12 m) and sediment characteristics such as %LOI (4-29%) and sediment deposition rate (0.27-1.76 cm yr(-1)). In each study site, mercury was measured in low and high marsh areas. Sediment mercury concentrations ranged from 7 to 79 ng g(-1) and loading rates ranged from 0.1 to 1.1 mg m(-2). Total estimated 5-yr storage of mercury in salt marsh sediments of the Bay is 854+/-465 kg. We also compared sediment mercury loading to atmospheric inputs measured at a deposition monitoring station operating in New Brunswick from 1997 to 2002 and found that direct atmospheric deposition appears to be a minor input of mercury to these sediments. We are unaware of documentation of mercury loading in salt marshes on a bay-wide scale and over a constrained (5-yr) time period elsewhere.     

A survey of zinc, copper and cadmium concentrations in salt marsh plants along the Dutch coast

In autumn 1986, plants and soil were collected from the lower and the higher salt marsh zones of salt marshes along the Dutch coast. The main purpose was to get an overview of Zn, Cu and Cd concentrations in six dominant species of salt marsh plants. The roots and shoots of the plants were analysed for Zn, Cu and Cd. The highest heavy metal concentrations were found in plants collected from salt marshes near harbour areas and/or that are known to receive contaminated fluvial sediment. Dicotyledonous plant species tended to have similar heavy metal concentrations in roots and shoots, whereas in monocotyledonous species the concentrations in the roots were two to three times higher than in the shoots. Differences in accumulation in the roots between elements and between plant species were found. Cd was accumulated more than Zn or Cu. Triglochin maritima shows a low Cd uptake by roots, whereas Spartina anglica and Scirpus maritimus tend to accumulate it. The fraction of soil particles smaller than 63 microm, loss on ignition and Zn, Cu and Cd concentrations were determined in soil samples. The highest Zn, Cu and Cd concentrations in the soil were found at salt marshes in the Western Scheldt area and were nine, five and 20 times higher than background levels, respectively.     

Effects of washing fiddler crabs (Uca pugnax) following an oil spill

An oil spill on 2 January 1990 in New Jersey resulted in premature emergence of fiddler crabs Uca pugnax from their underground burrows. Live fiddler crabs that emerged on the surface were collected and behavioral changes were compared between those that were washed with freshwater and those that were not washed. Locomotion, aggression, balance, and burrowing behavior were examined. Unwashed crabs improved significantly on only one of twelve behavioral tests, while washed crabs improved in four tests relating to movement, defensive behavior, and burrowing. The washed crabs showed the greater improvement on ten of twelve tests while unwashed crabs showed greater improvement for two tests. Washed crabs also showed greater improvement in their ability to find and to construct their own burrows. These experiments indicate that oil removal improves the behavioral performance of crabs, and suggests that under some circumstances the immediate flushing of salt marsh creeks by uncontaminated tidal waters may decrease behavioral effects on crabs.     

The effects of oil spill and clean-up on dominant US Gulf coast marsh macrophytes: a review

The objective of this review was to synthesize existing information regarding the effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on marsh macrophytes in a manner that will help guide research and improve spill-response efficiency. Petroleum hydrocarbons affect plants chemically and physically. Although plants sometime survive fouling by producing new leaves, even relatively non-toxic oils can stress or kill plants if oil physically prevents plant gas-exchange. Plant sensitivity to fouling varies among species and among populations within a species, age of the plant, and season of spill. Physical disturbance and compaction of vegetation and soil associated with clean-up activities following an oil spill appear to have detrimental effects on the US Gulf coast marshes. Other techniques, including the use of chemicals such as cleaners or bioremediation, may be necessary to address the problem. Clean-up may also be beneficial when timely removal prevents oil from migrating to more sensitive habitats.     

Key factors affecting spatial variation of methane emissions from freshwater marshes

To understand the mechanism for spatial variation of CH(4) emissions from marshes grown with different type of plants in a region and plots within a certain marsh grown with one type of plants, we measured CH(4) emissions from a region in which eutrophic freshwater marshes were divided into three types: Carex lasiocarpa, Carex meyeruana and Deyeuxia angustifolia according to plant type as well as CH(4) concentration in porewater, aboveground plant biomass and stem density in situ in Sanjiang Plain of Northeast China in August 2001. Spatial variation of CH(4) emissions from both different marshes in a region and different plots within a certain marsh was high. The flux rates of CH(4) emissions from three marshes ranged from 17.2 to 66.5 mg CH(4) m(-2)h(-1) with 34.76% of variation coefficient, whereas the values in Carex lasiocarpa, Carex meyeriana and Deyeuxia angustifolia marshes varied from 21.6 to 66.5 (39.61%), from 17.2 to 45.0 (29.26%) and from 19.1 to 33.0 mg CH(4) m(-2)h(-1) (17.51%), respectively. Both the flux rates and spatial variation of CH(4) emissions strongly increased as standing water depth increased significantly. Standing water depth greatly governed the spatial variation of CH(4) emissions from different marshes in a region by changing the amount of plant litters inundated in standing water, which provided labile organic C for methanogens and controlled CH(4) concentrations in porewater. Moreover, the aboveground plant biomass determined spatial variation of CH(4) emissions from plots within a certain marsh by controlling the pathways (stem density) of CH(4) emissions from the marsh into the atmosphere.     

Tidal salt marsh sediment in California, USA. Part 2: occurrence and anthropogenic input of trace metals

Surface sediment samples (0–5 cm) from 5 tidal salt marshes along the coast in California, USA were analyzed to investigate the occurrence and anthropogenic input of trace metals. Among study areas, Stege Marsh located in the central San Francisco Bay was the most contaminated marsh. Concentrations of metals in Stege Marsh sediments were higher than San Francisco Bay ambient levels. Zinc (55.3–744 μg g⁻¹) was the most abundant trace metal and was followed by lead (26.6–273 μg g⁻¹). Aluminum normalized enrichment factors revealed that lead was the most anthropogenically impacted metal in all marshes. Enrichment factors of lead in Stege Marsh ranged from 8 to 49 (median = 16). Sediments from reference marshes also had high enrichment factors (2–8) for lead, indicating that lead contamination is ubiquitous, possibly due to continuous input from atmospherically transported lead that was previously used as a gasoline additive. Copper, silver, and zinc in Stege Marsh were also enriched by anthropogenic input. Though nickel concentrations in Stege Marsh and reference marshes exceeded sediment quality guidelines, enrichment factors indicated nickel from anthropogenic input was negligible. Presence of nickel-rich source rock such as serpentinite in the San Francisco Bay watershed can explain high levels of nickel in this area. Coefficients of variation were significantly different between anthropogenically impacted and non-impacted metals and might be used as a less conservative indicator for anthropogenic input of metals when enrichment factors are not available.     

The role of herbicides in the erosion of salt marshes in eastern England

Laboratory studies and field trials were conducted to investigate the role of herbicides on saltmarsh vegetation, and their possible significance to saltmarsh erosion. Herbicide concentrations within the ranges present in the aquatic environment were found to reduce the photosynthetic efficiency and growth of both epipelic diatoms and higher saltmarsh plants in the laboratory and in situ. The addition of sublethal concentrations of herbicides resulted in decreased growth rates and photosynthetic efficiency of diatoms and photosynthetic efficiency of higher plants. Sediment stability also decreased due to a reduction in diatom EPS production. There was qualitative evidence that diatoms migrated deeper into the sediment when the surface was exposed to simazine, reducing surface sediment stability by the absence of a cohesive biofilm. Sediment loads on leaves severely reduced photosynthesis in Limonium vulgare. This, coupled with reduced carbon assimilation from the effects of herbicides, could have large negative consequences for plant productivity and over winter survival of saltmarsh plants. The data support the hypothesis that sublethal herbicide concentrations could be playing a role in the increased erosion of salt marshes that has occurred over the past 40 years.     

超声波净化石油污染土壤实验研究

为研究超声波技术处理石油污染土壤的影响因素,选取了土壤含油量、土水比、土壤类型、超声处理时间和超声功率5个因素进行了具有交互作用的正交实验,并讨论了各因素对土壤中石油污染物清除率的影响。实验结果表明超声波对土壤中石油污染物的净化效果明显,总石油烃(TPH)的清除率在23.0%到77.3%之间,土壤类型对净化效果的影响最为显著,粘土中的TPH清除率显著低于砂土。由超声空化引起的解吸作用和真空抽滤是实验过程中土壤TPH减少的主要途径。研究结果表明超声波技术用于石油污染土壤修复是可行并且有效果的。     

Effects of bioturbation on the fate of oil in coastal sandy sediments--an in situ experiment

Effects of bioturbation by the common lugworm Arenicola marina on the fate of oil hydrocarbons (alkanes and PAHs) were studied in situ during a simulated oil spill in a shallow coastal area of Roskilde fjord, Denmark. The fate of selected oil compounds was monitored during 120 d using GC-MS and bioturbation activity (feces production and irrigation) was measured regularly during the experiment and used as input parameters in a mechanistic model describing the effects of A. marina on the transport and degradation of oil compounds in the sediment. The chemical analytical data and model results indicated that A. marina had profound and predictable effects on the distribution, degradation and preservation of oil and that the net effect depended on the initial distribution of oil. In sediment with an oil contaminated subsurface-layer A. marina buried the layer deeper in the sediment which clearly enhanced oil persistence. Conversely, A. marina stimulated both the physical removal and microbial degradation of oil compounds in uniformly oil contaminated sediments especially in deeper sediment layers (10-20 cm below the surface), whereas the fate of oil compounds deposited in surface layers (0-5 cm) mainly was affected by removal processes induced by wave actions and other bioturbating infauna such as Nereis diversicolor, Corophium volutator and Hydrobia spp. present in the experimental plots.     

沉积物疏浚技术在富营养化湖泊修复中的应用

沉积物疏浚是削减富营养化湖泊内源负荷的最为直接和有效的手段.分析了沉积物疏浚的效果和可能引起的风险;从外源污染、作业区域和深度、沉水植物3个方面探讨了影响沉积物疏浚效果的关键因素.最后指出,富营养化湖泊沉积物疏浚的重要原则是截断外源污染、划分作业区域、合理控制挖掘深度、创造适宜生境、恢复沉水植物、重构生态系统等.     

Fate and effects of heavy metals in salt marsh sediments

The fate and effects of selected heavy metals were examined in sediment from a restored salt marsh. Sediment cores densely covered with Spartina patens were collected and kept either un-amended or artificially amended with nickel (Ni) under standardized greenhouse conditions. Ni-amendment had no significant effect on the fate of other metals in sediments, however, it increased root uptake of the metals. Metal translocation into the shoots was small for all metals. Higher Ni concentrations in plants from amended cores were accompanied by seasonal reductions in plant biomass, photosynthetic capacity and transfer efficiency of open photosystem II reaction centers; these effects, however, were no longer significant at the end of the growing season. Root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) resembled that of natural salt marshes with up to 20% root length colonized. Although Ni-amendment increased AMF colonization, especially during vegetative growth, in general AMF were largely unaffected.     

秸秆固定化石油降解菌降解原油的初步研究

用秸秆做载体固定嗜碱芽孢杆菌(Bacillus alcalophilus SG)降解原油,其原油去除率为73.88%,高于单纯投加菌液或者菌液与秸秆的混合物的原油去除率.秸秆的最佳投加量(干重)为25.0 g/L,最佳固定化时间为30 h.用预处理过的秸秆固定SG,降低了固定化SG的原油去除率.在固定化培养基中添加无机盐离子,促进了固定化SG对原油的降解.不同初始pH的原油培养基在固定化SG降解原油的过程中逐渐呈中性或偏碱性.固定化SG在pH 6.0～10.0时对原油均有不错的降粘能力.     

1株好氧菌对不同油脂的降解

从某餐馆排污渠污泥分离到10株油脂降解菌,以植物油脂花生油为唯一碳源,通过适应性培养驯化并检测细菌生长的OD值筛选出1株优势菌。在确定其最佳生长环境条件的基础上,分别以花生油、餐厅污水和一种含有油脂的膜为对象污染物,进行了优势菌的降解试验。结果表明,该菌对花生油溶液中油脂和CODcr的去除率在24h以内分别达到98．91％和97．27％;对餐厅污染中油脂和CODcr的降解率在30h内分别达到88．66％和85．42％。另外,该优势菌对油脂膜也有良好降解效果,在固体和液体培养基中30d内油脂膜量分别减少了3．31％和11．29％以上。试验证实了该菌对植物油脂、含油脂污水和固体油脂废弃物有良好的净化效果。     

Reduction of perchlorate and nitrate by salt tolerant bacteria

Spent regenerant brine from ion-exchange technology for the removal of perchlorate and nitrate produces a high salt waste stream, which requires remediation before disposal. Bioremediation is an attractive treatment option. In this study, we enriched for salt tolerant bacteria from sediments from Cargill salt evaporation facility (California, USA), the Salton Sea (California, USA), and a high density hydrocarbon oxidizing bacterial cocktail. The bacterial cocktail enrichment culture reduced ClO4- from 500 to 260 mg 1 in 4 weeks. Salt tolerant bacterial isolates from the enrichment cultures and two denitrifying salt tolerant bacteria, Haloferax denitrificans and Parococcus halodenitricans, substantially reduced perchlorate. The highest rate of perchlorate removal was recorded with the isolate, Citrobacter sp.: 32% reduction in 1 week. This bacterium substantially reduced perchlorate in 0-5% NaCl solutions and maximally at 30 degrees C and at an initial pH 7.5. In simulated brines containing 7.5% total solids, the Citrobacter sp. significantly reduced both perchlorate and nitrate with 34.9 and 15.6% reduction, respectively, in 1 week. Coculture of a potent perchlorate reducing, non-salt tolerant (non-saline) bacterium, perclace and the Citrobacter sp. proved most effective for perchlorate removal in the brine (46.4% in 1 week). This study demonstrates that both anions can be reduced in treatment of brines from ion exchange systems.     

Constructed treatment wetland: a study of eight plant species under saline conditions

A series of investigations was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of using constructed treatment wetlands to remove pollutants from saline wastewater. Eight emergent plants; cattail, sedge, water grass, Asia crabgrass, salt meadow cordgrass, kallar grass, vetiver grass and Amazon, were planted in experimental plots and fed with municipal wastewater that was spiked with sodium chloride (NaCl) to simulate a saline concentration of approximately 14-16 mScm-1. All macrophytes were found tolerant under the tested conditions except Amazon and vetiver grass. Nutrient assimilation of salt tolerant species was in the range of 0.006-0.061 and 0.0002-0.0024 gm-2d-1 for nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. Treatment performances of planted units were found to be 72.4-78.9% for BOD5, 43.2-56.0% for SS, 67.4-76.5% for NH3-N and 28.9-44.9% for TP. The most satisfactory plant growth and nitrogen assimilation were found for cattail (Typha angustifolia) though the plant growth was limited, whereas Asia crabgrass (Digitaria bicornis) was superior for BOD5 removal. Both were evaluated again in a continuous flow constructed wetland system receiving saline feed processing wastewater. A high removal rate regularly occurred in long-term operating conditions. The reduction in BOD5, SS, NH3-N and TP was in the range of 44.4-67.9%, 41.4-70.4%, 18.0-65.3% and 12.2-40.5%, respectively. Asia crabgrass often provided higher removal especially for BOD5 and SS removal. Nutrient enriched wastewater promoted flourishing growth of algae and plankton in the surface flow system, which tended to reduce treatment performance.     

Phytomonitoring and management of tar piles on the Qatari coastal marshes, Arabian Gulf

Most of the shores in Qatar and other oil producing countries have had a long history of crude oil pollution from different sources. This pilot study was to assess the problem and suggest a management programme for disposing of the collected tar or lessening the impact of tar accumulation. The vegetation on the sites used for dumping tar was used in a field survey to identify bioindicators of tar pollution and of the natural recovery of polluted sites. The phytomonitoring results indicate that recovery of polluted sites can be quite rapid after clean-up and restoration. To facilitate natural plant invasion and colonization, and the restoration of tar piles, the dumping sites must have plant communities with high species diversity and a high percentage of annual plants. Depending on the sand-tar ratio in the piles, artificial seeding of selected plant species (listed) can be applied by using species mixes or single species seeding. Management techniques are suggested to optimize the natural recovery and revegetation of tar-affected coastal marshes.     

Influence of oil contamination levels on hydrocarbon biodegradation in sandy sediment

The influence of oil concentration on hydrocarbon biodegradation in a sandy sediment was studied in polyvinyl chloride reactors (0.45 x 0.28 x 0.31 m) containing 76.8 kg of beach sand in natura, where the upper layer was artificially contaminated with petroleum. The oil-degrading microorganisms used consisted of a mixed culture named ND, obtained from landfarming and associated with indigenous microorganisms. On the 28th day of the process, the degradation in reactors containing sandy sediment contaminated with light Arabian oil and presenting an initial oil content of 14, 21 or 28 g kg-1 reached the following levels (%): 33.7, 32.9 and 28.9 for oil and grease; up to 88.3, 35.3 and 13.0 for C14-C26 n-alkanes; and 100, 61.3 and 59.4 for pristane, respectively. Phytane removal (37.1%) was only detected in the reactor contaminated with the lowest oil concentration studied. These results, together with the expressive bacterial growth observed (from 10(6) to 10(11) cfu g-1) give strong support to the argument that biodegradation was the dominant component of the remediation process. Susceptibility to biodegradation was inversely proportional to increasing oil contamination. The degradation of branched alkane: pristane was not repressed by the presence of n-alkanes.     

Tidal salt marsh sediment in California, USA. Part 1: occurrence and sources of organic contaminants

Surface sediment samples (0-5 cm) from five tidal marshes along the coast of California, USA were analyzed for organic pollutants to investigate their relationship to land use, current distribution within marshes, and possible sources. Among the study areas, Stege Marsh, located in San Francisco Bay, was the most contaminated. Compared to San Francisco Bay, Stege Marsh had much higher levels of organic contaminants such as PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), DDTs, and chlordanes. At reference marshes (Tom's Point and Walker Creek in Tomales Bay), organic contaminants in sediments were very low. While PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) were found at all of the study areas (22-13,600 ng g(-1)), measurable concentrations of PCBs were found only in the sediments from Stege Marsh (80-9,940 ng g(-1)). Combustion related (pyrogenic) high molecular weight PAHs were dominant in sediments from Stege and Carpinteria Marshes, while in sediments from Tom's Point and Walker Creek petroleum related (petrogenic) low molecular weight PAHs and alkyl-substituted PAHs were much more abundant than pyrogenic PAHs. PCB congener patterns in all of the Stege Marsh samples were the same and revealed that Aroclor 1248 was a predominant source. In all marshes, the sum of DDE and DDD accounted for more than 90% of total DDTs, indicating that DDT has degraded significantly. The ratios of p,p'-DDE to p,p'-DDD in sediments from Stege Marsh provide evidence of possible previous use of technical DDD. Chlordane ratios indicated that chlordanes have degraded slightly. Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (280-32,000 ng g(-1)) was the most abundant phthalate. The data indicates that Stege Marsh may be a source of contaminants that continue to be discharged into San Francisco Bay.     

Hot water flushing for immiscible displacement of a viscous NAPL

Thermal remediation techniques, such as hot water flooding, are emerging technologies that have been proposed for the removal of nonaqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) from the subsurface. In this study a combined laboratory and modeling investigation was conducted to determine if hot water flooding techniques would improve NAPL mass removal compared to ambient temperature water flushing. Two experiments were conducted in a bench scale two-dimensional sandbox (55 cmx45 cmx1.3 cm) and NAPL saturations were quantified using a light transmission apparatus. In these immiscible displacement experiments the aqueous phase, at 22 degrees C and 50 degrees C, displaced a zone with initial NAPL saturations on the order of 85%. The interfacial tension and viscosity of the selected light NAPL, Voltesso 35, are strongly temperature-dependent. Experimental results suggest that hot water flooding reduced the size of the high NAPL saturation zone, in comparison to the cold water flood, and yielded greater NAPL mass recovery (75% NAPL removal vs. 64%). Hot water flooding did not, however, result in lower residual NAPL saturations. A numerical simulator was modified to include simultaneous flow of water and organic phases, energy transport, temperature and pressure. Model predictions of mass removal and NAPL saturation profiles compared well with observed behavior. A sensitivity analysis indicates that the utility of hot water flooding improves with the increasing temperature dependence of NAPL hydraulic properties.     

Evaluation of hydrophobicity in PAH-contaminated soils during phytoremediation

The impact of recalcitrant organic compounds on soil hydrophobicity was evaluated in contaminated soil from a manufactured gas plant site following 12 months of phytoremediation. Significant reduction in soil wetting and water retention was observed in contaminated soil compared to an uncontaminated control. Phytoremediation was effective at reducing total PAHs by 69% with corresponding changes in soil classification from extremely hydrophobic (initial sample) to moderately-strongly hydrophobic (planted) and hydrophilic-very hydrophilic (unplanted) after 12 months. The greatest reduction in soil hydrophobicity was observed in the unplanted, unfertilized treatments that had the lowest removal rate of PAHs. The presence of plants may contribute to hydrophobicity in contaminated soil.