Assembly and loss of the polar flagellum in plant-associated methylobacteria

On the leaf surfaces of numerous plant species, inclusive of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), pink-pigmented, methanol-consuming, phytohormone-secreting prokaryotes of the genus Methylobacterium have been detected. However, neither the roles, nor the exact mode of colonization of these epiphytic microbes have been explored in detail. Using germ-free sunflower seeds, we document that, during the first days of seedling development, methylobacteria exert no promotive effect on organ growth. Since the microbes are evenly distributed over the outer surface of the above-ground phytosphere, we analyzed the behavior of populations taken from two bacterial strains that were cultivated as solid, biofilm-like clones on agar plates in different aqueous environments (Methylobacterium mesophilicum and M. marchantiae, respectively). After transfer into liquid medium, the rod-shaped, immobile methylobacteria assembled a flagellum and developed into planktonic microbes that were motile. During the linear phase of microbial growth in liquid cultures, the percentage of swimming, flagellated bacteria reached a maximum, and thereafter declined. In stationary populations, living, immotile bacteria, and isolated flagella were observed. Hence, methylobacteria that live in a biofilm, transferred into aqueous environments, assemble a flagellum that is lost when cell density has reached a maximum. This swimming motility, which appeared during ontogenetic development within growing microbial populations, may be a means to colonize the moist outer surfaces of leaves.     

Growth in liverworts of the Marchantiales is promoted by epiphytic methylobacteria

Liverworts, the most basal lineage of extant land plants, have been used as model systems in the reconstruction of adaptations to life on land. In this study, we used gemmae (specialized propagules) that were isolated from mature gemma cups of two distantly related species of liverworts, Marchantia polymorpha L. and Lunularia cruciata L. (order Marchantiales). We show that methylobacteria (genus Methylobacterium), microbes that inhabit the surfaces of land plants where they secrete phytohormones (cytokinines), promote the growth of isolated gemmae cultivated on agar plates. As a control, two species of higher plants, maize (Zea mays L.) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) were raised aseptically from sterile seeds (i.e., caryopses, achenes). Inoculation of these propagules with methylobacteria was without effect on growth in the above-ground phytosphere (expansion of stems and leaves). We conclude that normal development in Marchantia and Lunularia is dependent on (and possibly regulated by) epiphytic methylobacteria, whereas representative higher plants grow at optimal rates in the absence of these prokaryotic epiphytes.     

Increased acidification in the rhizosphere of cactus seedlings induced by Azospirillum brasilense

Acidification of the rhizosphere of cactus seedlings (giant cardon, Pachycereus pringlei) after inoculation with the plant growth-promoting bacterium Azospirillum brasilense Cd, in the presence or absence of ammonium and nitrate, was studied to understand how to increase growth of cardon seedlings in poor desert soils. While ammonium enhanced rhizosphere and liquid culture acidification, inoculation with the bacteria enhanced it further. On the other hand, nitrate increased pH of the rhizosphere, but combined with the bacterial inoculation, increase in pH was significantly smaller. Bacterial inoculation with ammonium enhanced plant growth.     

不同作物种苗对水中重金属镉去除的比较研究

以玉米、向日葵和蓖麻为实验材料,研究了3种作物种苗对镉的去除效果以及种苗生理生化指标的变化情况.结果表明,①随着处理时间的延长,溶液中镉含量逐渐降低,去除过程主要集中在前48 h.在1 mg·L^-1和2 mg·L^-1 Cd溶液中,向日葵和蓖麻种苗的去除效果要好于玉米种苗的;而在5 mg·L^-1和10 mg·L^-1 Cd溶液中,去除效果顺序为：蓖麻>玉米>向日葵.②种苗从溶液中吸收的镉绝大部分集中在根部.3种作物种苗对镉的富集能力大小顺序为：向日葵>蓖麻>玉米.③在不同镉处理浓度下,3种作物种苗的叶片质膜透性、根系活力、叶绿素含量和游离脯氨酸含量等生理生化指标均有不同程度的变化.向日葵的根系活力和脯氨酸含量均与镉积累量呈现显著相关性;蓖麻叶片的质膜透性和脯氨酸含量均与镉含量呈现显著正相关.3种作物种苗对镉都有一定的耐受性,而向日葵和蓖麻种苗的耐受性比玉米种苗的强.     

沉水植物轮叶黑藻附生细菌对双酚A的降解能力研究

沉水植物附生细菌可能具有降解转化水体中双酚A（BPA）能力从而影响该污染物在环境中的归趋.以轮叶黑藻为代表,分离筛选其BPA降解附生菌,结果共获得22株,在接种量为1×10⁸个/mL,37℃下72h对BPA的去除率为11.46%~25.06%.选择降解率最高的3株细菌B12、B14和B23,采用16S rDNA鉴定,结合生理生化反应和形态观察,3株细菌分别为属于Lysinibacillus sp.（杆菌属）,Brevibacterium sp.（短杆菌属）和Ochrobactrum sp.（苍白杆菌属）.将3株菌株添加至轮叶黑藻无菌苗体系中,发现BPA去除率显著下降（P<0.05）.物理去除部分野生轮叶黑藻表面部分附生细菌后,BPA去除率反而上升（约5%）.综合本研究结果,沉水植物附生细菌具有降解BPA的能力,但在沉水植物-附生生物体系去除BPA过程中贡献较小（约为23%,2d）,植物本身起关键作用.     

Alcoholism in cockchafers: orientation of male Melolontha melolontha towards green leaf alcohols

Chemical orientation of the European cockchafer, Melolontha melolontha L., a serious pest in agriculture and horticulture, was investigated by field tests and electrophysiological experiments using plant volatiles. In total, 16 typical plant volatiles were shown to elicit electrophysiological responses in male cockchafers. Funnel trap field bioassays revealed that green leaf alcohols (i.e. (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol, (E)-2-hexen-1-ol and 1-hexanol) attracted males, whereas the corresponding aldehydes and acetates were behaviourally inactive. Furthermore, male cockchafers were attracted by volatiles from mechanically damaged leaves of Fagus sylvatica L., Quercus robur L. and Carpinus betulus L. However, volatiles emitted by damaged leaves of F. sylvatica attracted significantly more males than those from the other host plants. Odour from intact F. sylvatica leaves was not attractive to M. melolontha males. Females were not attracted by any of the tested volatile sources. The results suggest that plant volatiles play a similar role as a sexual kairomone in mate finding of M. melolontha, as has been shown for the forest cockchafer, Melolontha hippocastani F. Nevertheless, both species show remarkable differences in their reaction to green leaf alcohols.     

Indirect interactions between a phytopathogenic and an entomopathogenic fungus

Slow growth in herbivores may lead to higher mortality, due to prolonged exposure to natural enemies. A number of studies has tested the 'slow-growth, high-mortality' hypothesis using predators or parasitoids as natural enemies of the herbivore, but the possible role of pathogens is poorly documented. We provide evidence that phytopathogenic infection of a plant enhances the susceptibility of herbivore larvae to a generalist entomopathogen. Larvae of the mustard leaf beetle Phaedon cochleariae grow more slowly when feeding on Chinese cabbage leaves infected by the phytopathogenic fungus Alternaria brassicae than larvae feeding on healthy leaves. Treatment of such larvae feeding on diseased plants with an LD₅₀ of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae resulted in 100% mortality, compared with a mortality rate of 54% in the control larvae feeding on uninfected leaves. This is the first demonstration of an interaction between a phyto- and an entomopathogenic fungus.     

向日葵对锶的富集特征与耐受机制研究

为探明向日葵(Helianthus annuus L.)对金属锶的富集特征和耐受机制,本试验施加不同浓度锶(25、150、750和1500 mg·kg-1)土培处理30 d,研究了向日葵幼苗体内锶的富集和分配特征及对植物生长和膜脂过氧化产物MDA(丙二醛)含量、SOD(超氧化物歧化酶)、POD(过氧化物酶)、CAT(过氧化氢酶)活性的影响.结果显示:(1)向日葵幼苗的根长、株高、根生物量和地上生物量随着土壤中金属锶浓度的升高呈先增加后降低的趋势;(2)向日葵的根、茎、叶均能富集金属锶,不同器官表现为根叶茎.向日葵的生物富集系数与不同器官金属锶富集浓度呈显著负相关,且根部金属锶浓度与富集系数的相关性最强;(3)MDA含量随着锶浓度升高呈先减少后增加的趋势,而抗氧化酶SOD、POD和CAT活性均随着锶浓度升高呈先增加后减少的趋势.SOD和POD活性在高浓度金属锶处理中受到了抑制,而高水平的CAT活性表明向日葵清除活性氧的能力增强.以上结果表明,向日葵的根、茎、叶均能积累锶,根部的富集能力最强,且根部的抗氧化酶系统对金属锶胁迫更为敏感,其中较高的CAT活性表明在向日葵耐受锶胁迫机制中起到关键作用.此研究为金属锶污染土壤的植物修复以及向日葵对锶的耐受机制提供理论依据.     

Effect of rhizosphere on soil microbial community and in-situ pyrene biodegradation

To access the influence of a vegetation on soil microorganisms toward organic pollutant biogegration, this study examined the rhizospheric effects of four plant species (sudan grass, white clover, alfalfa, and fescue) on the soil microbial community and in-situ pyrene (PYR) biodegradation. The results indicated that the spiked PYR levels in soils decreased substantially compared to the control soil without planting. With equal planted densities, the efficiencies of PYR degradation in rhizosphere with sudan grass, white clover, alfalfa and fescue were 34.0%, 28.4%, 27.7%, and 9.9%, respectively. However, on the basis of equal root biomass the efficiencies were in order of white clover >> alfalfa > sudan > fescue. The increased PYR biodegradation was attributed to the enhanced bacterial population and activity induced by plant roots in the rhizosphere. Soil microbial species and biomasses were elucidated in terms of microbial phospholipid ester-linked fatty acid (PLFA) biomarkers. The principal component analysis (PCA) revealed significant changes in PLFA pattern in planted and non-planted soils spiked with PYR. Total PLFAs in planted soils were all higher than those in non-planted soils. PLFA assemblages indicated that bacteria were the primary PYR degrading microorganisms, and that Gram-positive bacteria exhibited higher tolerance to PYR than Gram-negative bacteria did.     

两种沉水植物附着生物种群特征对水深的响应研究

选取浅水湖泊中两种常见沉水植物上的附着生物作为研究对象,通过显微观测和16S rRNA高通量测序的方法,探究原位实验条件下水深(分别以T1、T2、T3、T4代表0.6、1.2、1.8和2.4 m)对狐尾藻(Myriophyllum spicatum)和马来眼子菜(Potamogeton malainus)附着藻类和附着细菌种群组成及其多样性特征的影响.结果表明,沉水植物附着生物种群特征与水深和生物种类有关,试验组中所有水深梯度下的狐尾藻附着生物群落的自养指数(AI)均大于马来眼子菜,且试验组中较小水深0.6~1.2 m的AI值较高,较大水深1.8~2.4 m的AI值较低.两种沉水植物表面附着藻类组成随水深变化差异显著(p0.05),绿藻门和硅藻门仍占种群绝对优势;附着细菌种群随水深梯度的变化差异也显著(p0.05),但主要包括有Proteobacteria、Firmicutes和Bacteroidetes等优势菌群,同种沉水植物或相似水层深度间的附着细菌组成和丰度有较高的相似性,并且试验组中较小水深0.6~1.2 m中拥有更多特有的细菌种类.研究发现,相同水深时狐尾藻附着藻类的多样性大于马来眼子菜,而马来眼子菜附着细菌多样性大于狐尾藻,且位于中等水深1.2~1.8 m时两种沉水植物附着藻类和附着细菌的多样性往往最高.通过水深对沉水植物附着生物种群特征影响的研究,可为揭示沉水植物表面微生态作用规律提供参考.     

四川汉源万顺铅锌矿区蜈蚣草共附生细菌群落结构对重金属的响应特征

为了充分挖掘重金属污染地区植物共附生细菌资源,提高重金属污染土壤生态修复的效率,利用变性梯度凝胶电泳(Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis,DGGE)技术,对四川省汉源县万顺铅锌矿区蜈蚣草根状茎中共附生细菌多样性和群落结构进行了研究,并分析了共附生细菌群落结构与蜈蚣草根状茎中有效重金属间的关系.结果表明,不同采样点间的蜈蚣草共附生细菌多样性存在明显差异,多样性指数和丰富度指数均表现为尾矿矿口弃渣区选矿区农田.基于DGGE回收条带序列的系统发育显示,蜈蚣草共附生细菌包括芽孢杆菌属(Bacillus)、伯克氏菌属(Burkholderia)、根瘤菌属(Rhizobium)、假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas)、肠杆菌属(Enterobacteria)和弯曲杆菌属(Campylobacter)等细菌类群.相关性分析表明,共附生细菌多样性指数和丰富度指数均与有效Cu、Cd、Pb、Zn和As含量呈显著正相关(p0.05).冗余分析(Redundancy Analysis,RDA)显示,有效As是影响蜈蚣草共附生细菌群落结构的关键因子,对砷含量较高的采样点,砷对蜈蚣草共附生细菌群落有促进作用,在砷含量相对较低的采样点,共附生细菌群落与砷呈负相关.研究表明,蜈蚣草存在丰富的共附生细菌种群,这些种群受蜈蚣草中有效重金属含量的影响明显,在修复重金属特别是砷污染土壤方面表现出潜在应用价值.     

Attractants from Bartlett pear for codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), larvae

The alkyl ethyl and methyl esters of (2E,4Z)-2,4-decadienoic acid found in head-space samples of ripe Bartlett pear (Pyrus communis L.) stimulated a response from neonate larvae of the codling moth (CM), Cydia pomonella (L.), in both static-air Petri-plate and in upwind Y-tube and straight-tube olfactometer bioassays. In comparison with the known CM neonate attractant, (E,E)-!-farnesene, ethyl (2E,4Z)-2,4-decadienoate was attractive at 10-fold and 1,000-fold lower threshold dosages in the Petri-plate and in the Y-tube bioassays, respectively. Methyl (2E,4Z)-2,4-decadienoate was attractive to CM neonates in these bioassays at much higher doses than ethyl (2E,4Z)-2,4-decadienoate. Other principal head-space volatiles from ripe pear fruit and pear leaves, including butyl acetate, hexyl acetate, (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate, and (E)-#-ocimene, were not attractive to CM neonates. The potential uses of these pear kairomones for monitoring and control of CM in walnuts and apple are discussed.     

Cycads: their evolution,toxins, herbivores and insect pollinators

Palaeobiological evidence indicates that gymnosperms were wind-pollinated and that insect pollination began in angiosperms in the Lower Cretaceous (ca. 135 mya) leading to close associations between higher plants and their pollinators. Cycads, which were widespread and pervasive throughout the Mesozoic (250-65 mya) are among the most primitive living seed-plants found today. Because pollination by beetles and by thrips has now been detected in several modern cycads, it is attractive to speculate that some insects and cycads had already developed similar mutualistic interactions in the Triassic (250-205 mya), long before the advent of angiosperms. We also draw attention to another key factor in this insect-plant relationship, namely secondary, defensive plant substances which must always have controlled interspecific interactions. Cycads mainly produce toxic azoglucosides and neurotoxic non-protein amino acids (e.g. BMAA), which apparently are crucial elements in the development and maintenance of mutualism (pollination) and parasitism (herbivory) by cycad-linked herbivores. We now add new results on the uptake and storage of the main toxin, cycasin, of the Mexican cycad Zamia furfuracea by its pollinator, the weevil Rhopalotria mollis, and by a specialist herbivore of Zamia integrifolia, the aposematic Atala butterfly Eumaeus atala.     

Is the contribution of bacteria to terrestrial carbon budget greatly underestimated?

Some commonly found species of soil bacteria use low molecular weight organic acids as their sole source of carbon and energy. This study shows that acids such as citrate and oxalate (produced in large amounts by fungi and plants) can rapidly be consumed by these bacteria. Two strains, Ralstonia eutropha and Xanthobacter autotrophicus, were cultured on acetate- and citrate-rich media. The resulting CO₂ and/or HCO₃^- reacted with calcium ions to precipitate two polymorphs of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), calcite and vaterite, depending on the quantity of slime produced by the strains. This production of primary calcium carbonate crystals by oxalate- and citrate-degrading bacteria from soil organic carbon sources highlights the existence of an important and underestimated potential carbon sink.     

Ricinosomes: an organelle for developmentally regulated programmed cell death in senescing plant tissues

This review describes aspects of programmed cell death (PCD). Present research maps the enzymes involved and explores the signal transduction pathways involved in their synthesis. A special organelle (the ricinosome) has been discovered in the senescing endosperm of germinating castor beans (Ricinus communis) that develops at the beginning of PCD and delivers large amounts of a papain-type cysteine endopeptidase (CysEP) in the final stages of cellular disintegration. Castor beans store oil and proteins in a living endosperm surrounding the cotyledons. These stores are mobilized during germination and transferred into the cotyledons. PCD is initiated after this transfer is complete. The CysEP is synthesized in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where it is retained by its C-terminal KDEL peptide as a rather inactive pro-enzyme. Large number of ricinosomes bud from the ER at the same time as the nuclear DNA is characteristically fragmented during PCD. The mitochondria, glyoxysomes and ribosomes are degraded in autophagic vacuoles, while the endopeptidase is activated by removal of the propeptide and the KDEL tail and enters the cytosol. The endosperm dries and detaches from the cotyledons. A homologous KDEL-tailed cysteine endopeptidase has been found in several senescing tissues; it has been localized in ricinosomes of withering day-lily petals and dying seed coats. Three genes for a KDEL-tailed cysteine endopeptidase have been identified in Arabidopsis. One is expressed in senescing ovules, the second in the vascular vessels and the third in maturing siliques. These genes open the way to exploring PCD in plants.     

The effects of exogenous salicylic acid on growth and H2O2-metabolizing enzymes in rice seedlings under lead stress

Salicylic acid （SA） was an essential component of the plant resistance to pathogens and also plays an important role in mediating plant response to some abiotic stress. The possible effects of SA on the growth and H2O2-metabolizing enzymes in rice seedlings under lead stress were studied. When rice seedlings grown in nutrient solution containing Pb^2＋ （0, 0.05, 0.15, 0.25 mmol/L） for 18 d, the plant biomass as well as the chlorophyll content of leaves decreased with increasing Pb concentration. The pre-treatment with SA （treated with 0.1 mmol/L SA for 48 h before Pb stress） partially protected seedlings from Pb toxicity. The chlorophyll contents were significant higher in leaves of Pb-exposed with SA pre-treatment seedlings than in Pb-exposed plants at the same Pb intensity. SA pre-treated alone could significantly increase the length of shoot and root of seedlings but the vigour difference was not marked under long-term exposure to Pb toxicity. SA pre-treated influence the H2O2 level in leaves of seedlings by up-regulating the activity of superoxide dismutase （SOD）, repressing the activity of catalase （CAT） and ascorbate peroxidase （APX） depending on the concentrations of Pb^2＋ in the growth medium. The results supported the conclusion that SA played a positive role in rice seedlings against Pb toxicity.     

吉林西部葵花种植区稀土元素地球化学特征

在吉林省西部葵花种植区采取土壤、葵花籽样品,对其中的土壤元素含量采用多种配套法测定,研究了稀土元素在土壤中的地球化学特征,并探讨了该区域稀土元素与其他元素和生物品质的相关性特征.结果表明,①农安工作区土壤稀土元素含量相对大安、通榆工作区高.土壤中稀土元素的分布模式为向右倾斜的轻稀土富集模式,与全国稀土分布模式一致.②3...     

Microbial spheres: a novel cyanobacterial–diatom symbiosis

Cyanobacteria, algae and bacteria are widespread inhabitants of North Sea microbial mats. Our studies of these populations showed uncommon modes of living and extraordinary structures, which have not been described before. The structures are spherical objects covering a community of cyanobacteria, diatoms and bacteria. The cultivation of these communities in the laboratory and intensive observations of their exceptional movement has led to some spectacular findings. The sphere formations go through different phases with variation in the dominance of different microorganisms. The role of the bacteria is the most important in the first phase, and can be increased by the addition of signal substances. Spheres surrounded by envelopes of unknown composition and permeability appear, with numerous bacteria and sporadic diatoms inside. Then the cyanobacteria penetrate the spheres and arrange themselves at the surface. The communities proliferate over some weeks and are finally released. Laboratory expositions of the microbial communities to different parameters pinpoint the limits of sphere formation. The metabolic products of the sphere communities are concentrated in the spheres and lead to a different kind of compound compared with the surrounding environment. In this way, the microbial communities strongly influence the structure of the sediments. Uncommon circular structures, which develop into spheres between 0.08 and 3 mm in size were found in subcultures of non-axenic filamentous cyanobacteria enrichments from North Sea microbial mats. These filamentous cyanobacteria (Phormidium sp.) together with associated benthic diatoms of the genus Navicula and associated heterotrophic bacteria were held as reproducible synergistic cultures. Phormidium sp. filaments tightly intertwined with each other, formed the surface of the spheres, trapping diatoms inside. The formation of "spheres" was the result of radial and synchronous movements of the cyanobacteria. In old cultures, the direction of the cyanobacterial movement has turned in the opposite direction, away from the sphere. The integrity of large "spheres" was influenced by chemotactic phenomena and maintained by some type of trichome-trichome interaction. This suggests the presence of metabolic secondary products, which attract cyanobacteria and influence their movement in a form of chemotactic response.     

喷播基质中土壤菌施用对紫穗槐幼苗光合特性和叶绿素荧光参数的影响

为了揭示喷播基质中土壤菌对植物的影响机制、筛选出优势土壤菌配置模式,以适应性极强的紫穗槐（Amorpha fruticosa）为试验材料,将筛选鉴定的3种土壤菌--细菌苏云金杆菌（nl11,专利号nl-11）、真菌卵形孢球托霉（nl15,专利号nl-15）和放线菌嗜热一氧化碳链霉菌（nl1,专利号nl-1）,配制成无菌（CK）、单菌（nl11、nl15、nl1）、两种菌混合（nl11+nl15、nl11+nl1、nl15+nl1）和3种菌混合（nl11+nl15+nl1）,共8种配置方式等比例混入基质中进行温室盆栽试验,分别观测其对紫穗槐幼苗的光合色素含量、光合特性以及叶绿素荧光参数的影响.结果表明:与无菌苗相比,其他7种处理的紫穗槐幼苗w（Chlb）显著高于对照,除nl15+nl1和nl15+nl1+nl11外,其他处理的幼苗w（Chla）和w（Chl）均显著高于对照;除nl15+nl1处理外,其他处理的幼苗w（Car）显著高于对照.相比对照,nl11+nl15处理的幼苗净光合速率（P_n）显著提高123.5%,nl11处理的幼苗净光合速率（P_n）、水分利用效率（WUE）和光系统Ⅱ（PSⅡ）最大光化学量子产量（F_v/F_m）显著提高148.72%、156.21%和5.74%,nl15处理的幼苗PSⅡ实际光化学效率（Φ_PSⅡ）显著提高,nl11+nl15+nl1处理的幼苗净光合速率、光化学淬灭系数（qP）与电子传递速率（ETR）显著提高173.59%、12.58%和5.13%,nl1处理的紫穗槐幼苗初始荧光（F_o）与最大荧光（F_m）显著低于无菌幼苗10.05%和19.86%.通过土壤菌施用,显著促进了紫穗槐幼苗的光合色素的合成,提高气孔导度、水分利用效率、蒸腾速率和净光合速率,降低气孔限制值,增强了植株对有效光的利用,并且防止过剩光能对光合机构的进一步伤害,提高抗逆性和适应性,并以nl11、nl11+nl15和nl11+nl15+nl1这3种配置模式效果最为显著.      

Feeding preference of the South American endemic anomuran <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aegla platensis</Emphasis> (Decapoda,Anomura, Aeglidae)

In order to determine the feeding preference of Aegla platensis in streams and the importance of microorganisms in its detritivore diet, we carried out two experiments designed to evaluate the food preferences of A. platensis (1) among leaves with different levels of microbial colonization and (2) among insect larvae (Chironomidae, Simuliidae, Hydropsychidae) and microbially conditioned leaves. A. platensis preferred animal over plant food items; when only leaves were offered, this aeglid preferred the leaves with higher levels of microorganism conditioning.