Feeding livestock food residue and the consequences for the environmental impact of meat

The environmental impact of meat is high mainly due to the feed required by livestock in combination with the impacts of cultivating, transporting and processing of feed crops such as tapioca and grains. Like regular feed crops, livestock also feed on residue from the food industry, such as pulp, scrap and peels. Both types of raw material have different environmental impacts. Feeding food residue to livestock is an efficient way to upgrade a low quality material into high quality foods. In the Netherlands, food residue represents the majority of the feedstock for feed. Distinguishing crops from food residue has consequences for the ascribed environmental impact of meat. This paper separates these two streams using volume, environmental impact and their relevance in meat production. An assessment is made of three food industries (sugar beet industry, vegetable oil industry and potato product industry) that produce the largest stream of food residue, and of the pork industry, as an example of meat production. The environmental impact of food residue-based feed is allocated in three different ways: mass ratio, economic basis, and no assigned burden. We found that the amount of pork produced from food residue is substantial. The environmental impact of food residue-based feed is also significantly lower than grain-based feed. We discuss changes in vegetable and in animal product consumption that influence the environmental impact of pork. It is concluded that the use of current food residue keeps the environmental impact of livestock foods relatively low. However, a further increase in meat consumption would require more feed grains with a correspondingly larger environmental impact because food residues are used up.     

Adapting food systems of the Indo-Gangetic plains to global environmental change: key information needs to improve policy formulation

The Indo-Gangetic plain (IGP; including regions of Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh) is generally characterised by fertile soils, favourable climate and an abundant supply of water. Nevertheless, the challenge of increasing food production in the IGP in line with demand grows ever greater; any perturbation in agriculture will considerably affect the food systems of the region and increase the vulnerability of the resource-poor population. Increasing regional production is already complicated by increasing competition for land resources by non-agricultural sectors and by the deterioration of agri-environments and water resources. Global environmental change (GEC), especially changes in climate mean values and variability, will further complicate the agricultural situation and will therefore, have serious implications for food systems of the region. Strategies to reduce the vulnerability of the region's food systems to GEC need to be based on a combination of technical and policy options, and developed in recognition of the concurrent changes in socioeconomic stresses. Adaptation options need to be assessed with regard to their socioeconomic and environmental efficacy, but a greater understanding of the interactions of food systems with GEC is needed to be able to do this with confidence. This paper discusses information needs relating to resource management and policy support to guide the development of research planning for increasing the robustness of IGP food systems to GEC. Further information is needed to develop a range of adaptation strategies including augmenting production and its sustainability, increasing income from agricultural enterprises, diversification from rice–wheat systems, improving land use and natural resource management, and instigating more flexible policies and institutions.     

Life cycle assessment of sunflower and rapeseed as energy crops under Chilean conditions

An option for the agriculture and energy sectors in Chile is the cultivation of energy crops, but environmental studies are first needed in the framework of a sustainable national energy policy.In this study, we used a cradle-to-farm gate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to compare environmental impacts and energy and water demand of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) in Chile, as potential oleaginous crops for first-generation biodiesel production. National agricultural data are used for the LCA inventory and process data of international databases are adapted to local conditions. The effect of field N₂O emissions and land use change is evaluated. The results indicate that, compared to sunflower, rapeseed production has a better environmental performance in 9 out of the 11 impact categories evaluated, and lower water consumption. The energy demand of rapeseed is 4.9 GJ/t seed, 30% less than that of sunflower. Mineral fertilizers cause the highest environmental impact in both crops. The analysis of the life cycle of fertilizers indicates that extraction of raw materials and its production are key stages. Attempts to reduce the environmental impact and energy requirement of both crops should be mainly associated with the evaluation of other types of fertilization. In addition, particularly for sunflower, low impact herbicides should be evaluated, seed yield improved and cultivation practices optimized. If the crops are produced on degraded grasslands, the greenhouse gas emissions may be reduced.     

农作物生物质能的遥感估算——以广东省为例

农作物秸秆生物质能项目是生物质能最具产业化和规模化的集约利用方式之一,也是解决能源可持续发展和环境问题的有效途径之一。目前国内外对农作物秸秆生物质能总量估算都是基于传统的实地调查和统计数据来获取,缺乏详细的生物质能的空间分布信息,对生物质能源利用与规划指导粗略。论文以广东省为例,利用基于BIOME鄄BGC模型改进的MOD17A2/A3数据和TM数据对生物质能总量及空间格局进行估算和分析。根据生物质能可用部分的影响因素,建立可用生物质能决策模型。为能源消耗量大的省份在生物质能的有效利用方面提供了依据。     

Alternative crops for sustainable agricultural systems

The lack of suitable and appropriate crops has been a poorly recognized obstacle to the application of sound agroecological practices in some temperate and tropical regions. Cultivation of traditional hybrid crops in inherently hostile environments forces increased managerial and economic expenditures. Selection of ecologically harmonious crops exploits, rather than opposes natural forces. Based in part on US-AID funded research, we have identified three crops suitable for temperate/tropical cultivation. Amaranthus is recognized in Asia and Central and South America as a food crop that can be grown as a leafy vegetable or as a seed grain in mixed croppings. It does well under a wide variety of conditions using established cultural methods. It is nutritious and highly palatable and, in many areas, is well recognized in the market place. Prosopis species (mesquite) leguminous trees occur worldwide in arid and semi-arid areas. As phreatophytes, they are resistant to drought and high temperature extremes and produce abundant yields of edible beanlike pods. Using the beans from the tree, a variety of attractive, marketable food products have been prepared. We have also identified intermediate wheat-grass, a perennial relative of wheat, as an ecologically and economically attractive alternate crop. It is already a well-established range crop; grown for seed, it becomes a useful grain intercrop. The wholegrain or endosperm mill fractions make excellent tasting, appetizing and attractive baked products. Ongoing agronomic studies indicate it is especially suitable for balancing ecologically unstable areas.     

Greenhouse gas mitigation with scarce land: The potential contribution of increased nitrogen input

Agricultural lands have been identified to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions primarily by production of energy crops and substituting fossil energy resources and through carbon sequestration in soils. Increased fertilizer input resulting in increased yields may reduce the area needed for crop production. The surplus area could be used for energy production without affecting the land use necessary for food and feed production. We built a model to investigate the effect of changing nitrogen (N) fertilizer rates on cropping area required for a given amount of crops. We found that an increase in nitrogen fertilizer supply is only justified if GHG mitigation with additional land is higher than 9–15 t carbon dioxide equivalents per hectare (CO₂-eq._./ha). The mitigation potential of bioenergy production from energy crops is most often not in this range. Hence, from a GHG abatement point of view land should rather be used to produce crops at moderate fertilizer rate than to produce energy crops. This may change if farmers are forced to reduce their N input due to taxes or governmental regulations as it is the case in Denmark. However, with a fertilizer rate 10 % below the economical optimum a reduction of N input is still more effective than the production of bioenergy unless mitigation effect of the bioenergy production exceeds 7 t carbon dioxide (CO₂)-eq._./ha. An intensification of land use in terms of N supply to provide more land for bioenergy production can only in exceptional cases be justified to mitigate GHG emissions with bioenergy under current frame conditions in Germany and Denmark.     

Impact of prolonged rainy seasons on food crop production in Cameroon

This study set out to examine why agricultural production in differing agro-ecological zones of the same country responds differently to a common environmental event (an extension of the rainy season). We find that the heavy reliance of farmers in the drier agro-ecological zones on seasonal cycles make them more vulnerable to an extension of the rainy season than those in regions where rainfall is less relied on. Effects in these vulnerable regions include significant damage to crops as well as a shortage in local markets, which raises prices of basic food commodities. The difference between prices in low and high food producing periods is low for crops that can easily be preserved during rains (such as cassava at 58% from an average of 20% in previous years and yams at 82% from 65%). Crops that depend on sunshine for preservation experience greater differences between low and high periods (maize at 92% from an average of 31% in previous years, sorghum at 180% from 53%, and beans at 68% from 42%). In zones with a history of unreliable dry seasons, farmers are more adapted to coping with an extension of the rainy season and possess technology and skills which can be made available to others in vulnerable zones through inter-regional knowledge transfer of knowledge and skills. This study further reinforces the understanding that isolated climate shocks could be important in understanding and managing vulnerability. Also, vulnerability is quite variable even among communities in the same country, in which people practice the same economic activity and are exposed to the same shock.     

生物质炭服务农田生态系统“碳中和”的机制和潜力研究进展

废弃植物生物质热解制备为生物质炭是碳源整合再利用的有效手段之一,既能减少生物质自然分解过程中CO₂排放,同时,生物质炭还田还可通过调控微生物活动和碳源利用效率来减少土壤本底有机碳矿化.此外,生物质炭对土壤通气性的改善有利于CH₄氧化;其多孔结构、高比表面积等性能有利于CO₂及可溶性有机碳等易损耗碳源的吸附固定,促进土壤有机碳的固持,增加土壤碳库容量和质量.在农田生态系统中合理施加生物质炭有利于提高植物光合固碳能力、增加植物生物量和作物产量,具有环境和经济双重效益.因此,生物质炭可借助土壤和植物两条途径助力农田生态系统中碳的减排增汇.然而,生物质炭的内源性污染物、异质性和持久性等导致其很可能具有长期的生态环境风险,仍需深入而广泛的研究.环境友好型生物质炭的制备、生物质炭的因地制宜策略等仍然是亟待解决的难题.未来研究建议在生物质炭促生增碳的相关机理、生物质炭的长期生态效应、生物质炭基“智慧土壤”的研发以及生物质炭制备工艺标准化和生产规模化等方面加强,实现生物质资源的高效整合与绿色应用,以期助力生物质炭还田技术的推广,更好地服...     

发展生物能源引发的土地利用问题

在经济发展不断增加对能源的需求和国际上减少温室气体排放的压力下,生物能源得到了各国政府的大力扶持并取得了快速发展。全球燃料乙醇生产总量1975年为5.68×108L,2000年增加到170×108L,2007年迅速增加到511×108L。生物柴油也自2000年的约9.1×108L迅速增加到2007年的132×108L。生物能源的迅速发展带来了关于其对粮食安全影响的激烈争论。论文从剖析近年来关于生物能源发展对粮食安全的影响入手,系统分析了耕地在生物能源生产及其效应研究中的重要作用、近年来生物能源发展占用耕地面积、对土地利用变化的影响及其对农户耕地利用决策行为的影响机制。研究发现:①土地作为生物能源生产的主要资源投入类型,是其对粮食安全产生影响的最重要媒介;②近年来生物能源占用耕地面积呈不断增加趋势,2004年,全球生物能源占地1 400×104hm2,约为全球耕地总面积(140 583×104hm2)的1%,到2007年,占地4 221.7×104hm2,相当于2004年的3.05倍,据保守估计到2030年,将占地5 300×104hm2;③发展生物能源直接带来林地、草地和农用地等土地利用类型之间,以及不同农作物类型之间的土地利用冲突,并带来土地利用方式的显著变化;④从农户尺度看,相对于粮食作物,能源作物具备较高的经济收益,根据对广西武鸣县的农户调查得出,2009年木薯纯收益为11 123.04元/hm2、甘蔗为12 138.36元/hm2,远远高于稻谷(6 984.04元/hm2)、玉米(5 104.61元/hm2)、花生(2 851.36元/hm2),收益上的比较优势是其播种面积不断增加的根本原因。     

Agriculture, pesticides, food security and food safety

Decades ago, agrochemicals were introduced aiming at enhancing crop yields and at protecting crops from pests. Due to adaptation and resistance developed by pests to chemicals, every year higher amounts and new chemical compounds are used to protect crops, causing undesired side effects and raising the costs of food production. Eventually, new techniques, including genetically modified organisms (GMOs) resistant to pests, could halt the massive spread of agrochemicals in agriculture fields. Biological chemical-free agriculture is gaining also more and more support but it is still not able to respond to the need for producing massive amounts of food. The use of agrochemicals, including pesticides, remains a common practice especially in tropical regions and South countries. Cheap compounds, such as DDT, HCH and lindane, that are environmentally persistent, are today banned from agriculture use in developed countries, but remain popular in developing countries. As a consequence, persistent residues of these chemicals contaminate food and disperse in the environment. Coordinated efforts are needed to increase the production of food but with a view to enhanced food quality and safety as well as to controlling residues of persistent pesticides in the environment.     

Food security and climate change in drought-sensitive savanna zones of Ghana

Desertification, climate variability and food security are closely linked through drought, land cover changes, and climate and biological feedbacks. In Ghana, only few studies have documented these linkages. To establish this link the study provides historical and predicted climatic changes for two drought sensitive agro-ecological zones in Ghana and further determines how these changes have influenced crop production within the two zones. This objective was attained via Markov chain and Fuzzy modelling. Results from the Markov chain model point to the fact that the Guinea savanna agro-ecological zone has experienced delayed rains from 1960 to 2008 while the Sudan savanna agro-ecological zone had slightly earlier rains for the same period. Results of Fuzzy Modelling indicate that very suitable and moderately suitable croplands for millet and sorghum production are evenly distributed within the two agro-ecological zones. For Ghana to adapt to climate change and thereby achieve food security, it is important to pursue strategies such as expansion of irrigated agricultural areas, improvement of crop water productivity in rain-fed agriculture, crop improvement and specialisation, and improvement in indigenous technology. It is also important to encourage farmers in the Sudan and Guinea Savanna zones to focus on the production of cereals and legumes (e.g. sorghum, millet and soybeans) as the edaphic and climatic factors favour these crops and will give the farmers a competitive advantage. It may be necessary to consider the development of the study area as the main production and supply source of selected cereals and legumes for the entire country in order to free lands in other regions for the production of crops highly suitable for those regions on the basis of their edaphic and climatic conditions.     

低温热解生物质与煤共燃的污染性能和经济性能评价

在简要说明生物质与煤共燃意义的基础上，对低温热解生物质和煤共燃的污染性能和经济性能进行了研究和评价。认为低温热解生物质（锯屑、谷壳和花生壳）与煤共燃能够减排CO2、CH4等温室气体及NOX和SO2等大气污染物，减排重金属污染物和其它微量有毒有害元素；同时，二者共燃可以在运输成本、存储成本、电厂生物质处理费用、设备改造费用和节约煤炭等方面降低电厂的运营成本，但也可能在生物质低温解产品加工上提高生产费用以及在因燃用热解生物质可能造成的积灰结渣上提高设备维护费用。可以预见，生物质与煤共燃的研究将是实现能源可持续发展的有效措施之一。     

Projected change in climate thresholds in the Northeastern U.S.: implications for crops, pests, livestock, and farmers

Most prior climate change assessments for U.S. agriculture have focused on major world food crops such as wheat and maize. While useful from a national and global perspective, these results are not particularly relevant to the Northeastern U.S. agriculture economy, which is dominated by dairy milk production, and high-value horticultural crops such as apples (Malus domestica), grapes (Vitis vinifera), sweet corn (Zea mays var. rugosa), cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), and maple syrup (sugar maple, Acer saccharum). We used statistically downscaled climate projections generated by the HadCM3 atmosphere–ocean general circulation model, run with Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change future emissions scenarios A1fi (higher) and B1 (lower), to evaluate several climate thresholds of direct relevance to agriculture in the region. A longer (frost-free) growing season could create new opportunities for farmers with enough capital to take risks on new crops (assuming a market for new crops can be developed). However, our results indicate that many crops will have yield losses associated with increased frequency of high temperature stress, inadequate winter chill period for optimum fruiting in spring, increased pressure from marginally over-wintering and/or invasive weeds, insects, or disease, or other factors. Weeds are likely to benefit more than cash crops from increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Projections of thermal heat index values for dairy cows indicate a substantial potential negative impact on milk production. At the higher compared to lower emissions scenario, negative climate change effects will occur sooner, and impact a larger geographic area within the region. Farmer adaptations to climate change will not be cost- or risk-free, and the impact on individual farm families and rural communities will depend on commodity produced, available capital, and timely, accurate climate projections.     

Environmental impact of packaging and food losses in a life cycle perspective: a comparative analysis of five food items

The environmental concern and development issues regarding packaging has for 20 years to a high extent been on packaging when it has become waste. To reduce the environmental impact from the whole food packaging system it is also important to develop the packaging’s ability to reduce food waste. In some cases it may be necessary to increase the environmental impact of packaging in order to reduce food waste. In this paper, the environmental impact of packaging and food losses and the balance between the two has been examined for five different food items. The results show that packaging’s that reduce food waste can be an important tool to reduce the total environmental impact, even if there is an increase in impact from the packaging itself. This is especially true for food items where the environmental impact of the food is high relative the packaging, for example cheese, and for food items with high losses, for example bread. It is important to analyse the risk of increasing food losses when packaging design changes, for example, when the aim is less packaging material, which is the main intention of the packaging and packaging waste directive of the European Union.     

我国农村生物质资源利用现状分析及对策研究

我国农村生物质资源丰富,对其充分合理利用,对促进农村经济的可持续发展具有重要意义。简述了我国农村生物质资源潜力,并从使用途径、转换技术选择、政策体系等方面,分析了当前农村生物质资源利用现状及未来发展趋势,识别发展过程中的制约因素并提出了相关对策建议。     

食物转化视角下我国家庭食物浪费程度与影响因素——基于CHNS数据的实证分析

长期以来,我国食物供应充足稳定,但是人口、环境等因素不断对此提出挑战,并且我国每年的食物损失和浪费数量十分惊人。从食物转化视角将食物浪费率定义为家庭食物消费中未能正常转化为家庭成员身体质量指数的比例,采用随机前沿模型并基于CHNS数据估算我国家庭食物浪费率,并探讨家庭异质性特征的影响。结果显示：家庭平均浪费率为11.28%;家庭规模越小、孩子或老年人的数量越多、收入水平越高、南方地区、户主的受教育程度越低、主要女性成员的受教育程度越高或者有工作、对膳食知识掌握程度越低的家庭浪费率越高。因此,要鼓励生产小包装食物和小型厨具,指导家庭根据实际需求购买食物,加强推广食育运动,开展节粮活动并教授减损措施。     

A Greenhouse Gas Balance of two Existing International Biomass Import Chains

Various utility companies are considering or already initiated the import of biomass from abroad for electricity generation, especially via co-firing in coal-fired power plants. This results in international logistic biomass supply chains, which raise questions on the environmental performance of such chains. In this study, a life cycle inventory has been performed on two existing biomass import chains to evaluate the greenhouse gas balance of biomass import for co-firing. We considered production, transport and co-firing of wood pellets from Canada and palm kernel shells from Malaysia in a 600 MW _e coal-fired power plant in the Netherlands. Those chains are compared with various reference systems for energy production and the alternative use of biomass. Primary energy savings of these import and co-firing chains are between 70% and 100% of the biomass energy content. Net avoided greenhouse gas emissions are in the range of 340–2100 g/kWh. In the most optimistic scenario, pellet co-firing avoids methane emissions that would have occurred if the pellets were decomposed at landfills when not applied for energy production. In the most pessimistic scenario, palm kernel shell co-firing competes with the application as resource for animal feed production, which requires production and transport of an alternative resource. As the energy reference systems of the importing and exporting country and the alternative application of biomass have a significant impact on the net avoided greenhouse gas emissions, these factors should be considered explicitly when studying biomass trade for energy purposes.     

Challenges for food system adaptation today and tomorrow

Global environmental change presents both old and new challenges. A far more systematic application of existing science in the entire food chain is essential to meet future food needs. While this is daunting enough in itself, new questions present themselves through changing food habits and global environmental change. The immediate challenge is to adapt plant, animal and food systems to changing temperature, nutrient and water conditions. To develop sustainable food systems in the long term, the paper discusses a set of considerations such as food demand response, resource efficiency, GHG emission limits and provisions to reduce vulnerability. Finally, some factors are presented to reframe the nature of food systems: multifunctionality, globalisation, food and fuel prices, consumer behaviour and state support to food production.     

Impact of bioenergy crops in a carbon dioxide constrained world: an application of the MiniCAM energy-agriculture and land use model

In the coming century, modern bioenergy crops have the potential to play a crucial role in the global energy mix, especially under policies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions as proposed by many in the international community. Previous studies have not fully addressed many of the dynamic interactions and effects of a policy-induced expansion of bioenergy crop production, particularly on crop yields and human food demand. This study combines an updated agriculture and land use (AgLU) model with a well-developed energy-economic model to provide an analysis of the effects of bioenergy crops on energy, agricultural and land use systems. The results indicate that carbon dioxide mitigation policies can stimulate a large production of bioenergy crops, dependent on the level of the policy. This production of bioenergy crops can lead to several impacts on the agriculture and land use system: decreases in forestland and unmanaged land, decreases in the average yield of food crops, increases in the prices of food crops, and decreases in the level of human demand of calories.

中国食物生产消费系统碳素动态变化及其环境负荷

基于物质流原理,分析了1995~2016年中国食物生产消费系统的变化情况,测算并评价了食物生产消费系统碳素流动变化及食物碳消费导致的碳素环境负荷变化.结果表明：食物农业生产系统中碳汇和碳排总量整体均呈上升趋势,且碳汇增速明显高于碳排增速;食物生产系统碳素环境负荷中畜禽养殖产生的碳素环境负荷呈下降趋势,农用物资、农业活动及食物加工运输相关产生的碳环境负荷呈快速上升趋势.食物消费系统中,居民食物碳消费发生变化,居民碳消费结构从“以粮食碳消费为主”的饮食结构转变为“以粮食、肉类、食用植物油碳消费为主”的多元饮食结构,农村居民人均食物碳消费量由95.24kg/（人×a）降低至71.62kg/（人×a）,城镇居民人均食物碳消费量由52.06kg/（人×a）升至65.16kg/（人×a）.分析食物消费系统碳素环境负荷,进入大气的碳素环境负荷占主体地位,其次是土壤和水体,近年来进入土壤和水体的碳素比例增加.分析表明减少食物生产消费系统碳素环境负荷的措施,包括引导居民优化饮食结构,减少生活污水与厨余垃圾产生量,提高厨余垃圾与粪便还田比例,将系统中产生的废弃物内部循环利用等.