Eco-labelling of wild-caught seafood products

Several eco-labels for wild-caught seafood have been developed during the last decade. This article describes and analyses the criteria applied by four different eco-labelling schemes for seafood products from capture fisheries, and discusses the criteria in terms of environmental impacts, based on the ISO 14040 standard for life cycle assessment.It is concluded that the most widespread eco-label, the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), mainly addresses the fishing stage, in particular the overexploitation of marine resources. LCA studies confirm that the fishing stage represents the most significant environmental burden, but energy consumption and emissions of anti-fouling agents at the fishing or harvesting stage contribute with significant impacts that are not being addressed by international labelling initiatives for wild-caught seafood.LCA studies show that significant environmental impacts are related to the life cycle stages after landing. This includes fish processing, transport, cooling and packaging (especially for highly processed seafood products). Hence, another challenge would be to include criteria related to the post-landing consumption of energy, certain materials and chemicals, waste handling and wastewater emissions. Minimizing product losses throughout the product chain would also be an important area for future criteria in order to avoid fishing at high environmental costs only to produce something that is later wasted.The analysis shows that the Swedish KRAV is the only one that currently addresses a range of issues that include energy and chemicals in the whole life cycle of the products. International initiatives such as MSC cover fish products from many parts of the world emphasizing ‘overexploitation of fish resources’. It is recommended, however, that international initiatives such as MSC develop criteria related to energy use and chemicals – at least at the fishing stage. Over time, other life cycle stages could be addressed as well to the extent that this is manageable.     

Economic impact of the integration of alternative vehicle technologies into the New Zealand vehicle fleet

A multi-regional integrated energy systems model is developed to assess the economic impact of hydrogen fuel cell, hydrogen internal combustion, and battery electric technologies on the economy of New Zealand. Base case results suggest that a hydrogen fuel dominant vehicle fleet offers economic savings over a conventional fleet but requires the largest sequestration capacity as 75% of hydrogen fuel production is derived from fossil fuel. When the oil price is varied from US$120 to US$240 per barrel in 2030, and the carbon tax varied from US$30 to US$90 per tonne of CO₂ equivalent, the change in savings ranges from ?65% to +25%.     

Wood-based building materials and atmospheric carbon emissions

This study investigates the global impact of wood as a building material by considering emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Wood is compared with other materials in terms of stored carbon and emissions of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel energy used in manufacturing. An analysis of typical forms of building construction shows that wood buildings require much lower process energy and result in lower carbon emissions than buildings of other materials such as brick, aluminium, steel and concrete. If a shift is made towards greater use of wood in buildings, the low fossil fuel requirement for manufacturing wood compared with other materials is much more significant in the long term than the carbon stored in the wood building products.As a corollary, a shift from wood to non-wood materials would result in an increase in energy requirements and carbon emissions.The results presented in this paper show that a 17% increase in wood usage in the New Zealand building industry could result in a 20% reduction in carbon emissions from the manufacture of all building materials, being a reduction of about 1.5% of New Zealand’s total emissions. The reduction in emissions is mainly a result of using wood in place of brick and aluminium, and to a lesser extent steel and concrete, all of which require much more process energy than wood. There would be a corresponding decrease of about 1.5% in total national fossil fuel consumption. These figures have implications for the global forestry and building industries. Any increases in wood use must be accompanied by corresponding increases in areas of forest being managed for long term sustained yield production.     

东海区带鱼伏季休渔效果及其资源的合理利用

根据2002-2003年东海区带鱼年龄鉴定资料,并引用以往的带鱼渔业生物学研究结果,作为估算带鱼死亡系数和建立动态综合模型所需的有关参数值估算的依据,从而运用Ricker动态综合模型分析了在现行渔业条件下东海区带鱼伏季休渔效果和带鱼资源利用状况以及变更渔业利用情况对带鱼渔业所产生的影响。结果表明:在现行渔业下(tc=0.5a,F=2.61/a),东海区实施3个月的伏季休渔制度能使年平均资源量增加87%,年产量增加29%,渔获平均体重增加42%;带鱼资源的利用虽处于捕捞过度状态之中,但尚能承受较大的捕捞压力,资源结构利用不合理之处是捕捞大量的幼鱼群体,渔获个体依然过小,渔获平均体重仅为75g/ind.;单位补充量渔获量(Y/R)随tc变化的影响大于随F的变化,建议在维持现有伏季休渔制度下,应逐渐降低捕捞强度,并以提高起捕规格放大网目尺寸作为今后一个时期首选的渔业管理目标,应是较为现实的资源合理利用措施。     

Counting biodiversity waste in industrial eco-efficiency: fisheries case study

The foundation for the creation of eco-efficiency metrics for industrial impacts on biodiversity is considered. Because biodiversity is the essence of life itself, these metrics are essential for effectiveness in the theory and practice of eco-efficiency, particularly in the case of primary natural resource extraction industries such as fishing and forestry. The case of fishing is examined, with particular attention to by-catch, lost nets, and habitat damage caused by mobile fishing gears. It is appropriate to examine fishing because industrial era impacts on marine biodiversity have been severe and are driving large and deleterious changes in marine ecosystems. For discarded by-catch, it is proposed that an eco-efficient metric for the value per unit mass of discarded fish can be set to be equivalent to that of the market value of the utilized catch. In estimating the eco-efficient value of the catch, the value of the discarded fish is then subtracted from the market value of the catch. Fish killed in lost nets can be treated similarly. It is more difficult to address marine habitat damage by mobile fishing gear, which has the highest potential for ecological injury.By using the approach proposed, negative eco-efficiencies are obtained under circumstances in which the collateral damage to biodiversity exceeds the economic benefit obtained. This is a logical outcome given the long-term effects of biodiversity decline. A metric is also proposed for assessing whether avoidance of harm to biodiversity, in the form of switching fishing gear, is required. Lastly it is proposed that metrics might be developed to provide eco-efficiency credit for companies taking effective actions to improve, or actively participate in, ecosystem-based fisheries management.     

能源消费、能源效率与中国经济增长的协整分析研究

利用协整理论和基于误差修正模型的Granger因果关系检验分析了中国能源消费、能源效率和经济增长的关系。协整检验表明这三者之间存在长期协整关系,GDP和能源消费之间存在双向因果关系,而GDP和能源效率之间不存在因果关系。进一步脉冲响应函数分析结果表明,能源消费和GDP在长期内存在较强的双向正向效应;中国GDP在长期内对能源效率将会产生较强的正向效应,而能源效率则对GDP存在微弱的负向效应。     

Challenges for food system adaptation today and tomorrow

Global environmental change presents both old and new challenges. A far more systematic application of existing science in the entire food chain is essential to meet future food needs. While this is daunting enough in itself, new questions present themselves through changing food habits and global environmental change. The immediate challenge is to adapt plant, animal and food systems to changing temperature, nutrient and water conditions. To develop sustainable food systems in the long term, the paper discusses a set of considerations such as food demand response, resource efficiency, GHG emission limits and provisions to reduce vulnerability. Finally, some factors are presented to reframe the nature of food systems: multifunctionality, globalisation, food and fuel prices, consumer behaviour and state support to food production.     

Energy and land use impacts of sustainable transportation scenarios

This study compares the land use impacts of sustainable transportation scenarios. Energy efficiency is calculated for four hypothetical, renewable fuel cycles possible for light vehicles: (1) renewable electricity to electrolytic hydrogen to fuel cell vehicles, (2) renewable electricity to battery electric vehicles, (3) biomass gasified to hydrogen to fuel cell vehicles and (4) biomass liquefied to biofuel to fuel cell vehicles. A presumption of 200 W/m² nominal average insolation allows comparison of the fuel cycle efficiencies on a land use basis. The two electricity-based fuel cycles show much higher calculated efficiencies (and lower land uses) than the biomass-based fuel cycles. The use of hydrogen as an energy carrier improves the performance of the biomass resource, but does not show a distinct advantage in performance of the electricity resource. Finally, gross land use is calculated for the particular instance of the U.S. light vehicle fleet, for each of the four fuel cycles.     

赶不上定理及其循环经济理论意义

阐释了在一个正常发展的长时期的宏观经济体系中人均物质消费量永远上升的观点,研究了人均GDP增长速度和物质利用强度变化速度之间的数量关系,根据二者变化速度相对快慢提出和证明了保证人均物质消费量上升的充分必要条件即赶不上定理.利用赶不上定理,论述了循环经济是解决人类经济增长的无限性与自然资源有限性之间的矛盾的根本途径,当人均GDP增长速度为零时进行结构调整必然降低人均物质消费量,引发社会不安定现象;当人均GDP增长速度足够快时,可以大幅度进行结构调整而不降低人均物质消费量.     

国内外能源价格对我国能源消耗的综合调节作用比较研究

基于1978-2012年国内外能源价格、产业发展以及我国能源消耗的相关数据,通过构建一般调节作用模型和状态空间模型比较了国内外能源价格对我国能源消耗的作用路径以及静态和动态作用效力,结果表明：仅考虑单一路径时,国内外能源价格均难以对我国能源消耗起到有效的调节作用,但综合考虑多种路径时则表现出较强的影响。能源价格的提高通过影响产出总量和产业结构产生了较强的能耗拉动效应,但却通过影响能源效率产生了一定的能耗抑制效应。此外,国内外能源价格的联动性低,价格传导受阻。样本区间内,国内能源价格对我国能源消耗的影响显著大于国外能源价格的作用;后者通过价格路径对我国能源消耗的作用短期内并不显著,长期则表现出了一定的抑制性。总体来看,国内外能源价格关联性越强（价差越小）,能源价格提升对于能耗总量的抑制作用越明显;我国能源价格的合理上升有利于节能降耗。     

Cleaner production in Danish fish processing – experiences,status and possible future strategies

Danish fish processing industry has been one of the pioneers regarding implementation of cleaner production and environmental management systems. This article describes the experiences with cleaner production (CP) among leading Danish industries producing pickled herring and canned mackerel. The article emphasizes two case studies of ‘first mover’ companies, but data from other ‘proactive’ companies are also included.The article provides an overview of different types of CP solutions, improvement potentials, synergistic effects and possible trade-offs. The development of the applied solutions from the late 1980s until today are analysed and recommendations to future strategies at company level and policy level are provided.It is concluded that significant environmental improvements have been obtained for the analysed companies – especially concerning reductions in water consumption, wastewater emissions, and utilisation of fish ‘waste’ for valuable by-products. Still, more focus could be placed on the reduction of energy consumption, change of packaging types, and environmental impacts in other stages of the products life cycle.Authorities and companies have mainly focused on on-site reductions of wastewater emissions, but life cycle assessments show that more attention should be given to the reductions of environmental impacts in other parts of the product chain, e.g. fishing operations and transport as well.     

含氧生物质燃料的生命周期评价

为公正评价汽车代用燃料的能耗与环境效益,运用生命周期评价方法,研究了在燃料中分别添加不同比例的乙醇和甲酯2种生物质,带来的生命周期能耗和污染物排放变化,并对含氧生物质燃料的未来情景进行了预测分析.结果表明:乙醇代用燃料未降低化石燃料消耗,甲酯代用燃料可降低约20%的化石燃料消耗;几种配比的代用燃料均可降低石油消耗,甲酯代用燃料降低的趋势更加明显;各种代用燃料的温室气体排放都比较严重;乙醇代用燃料增加了NO_x排放,而甲酯代用燃料可降低约50%的NO_x排放;乙醇和甲酯的加入均能降低车用阶段的PM₁₀排放;燃料生产阶段的SO₂排放在整个生命周期中约占80%,必须严格控制;甲酯代用燃料可降低VOC排放.     

Application of a population dynamics model to the probabilistic assessment of cooling water intake effects of Millstone Nuclear Power Station (Waterford,CT) on a nearby winter flounder spawning stock

A major concern of the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection at Millstone Station has been the long-term effects of the station’s Cooling Water Intakes System (CWIS) on a small stock of winter flounder spawning in the Niantic River. Following the selection of a population modeling approach for long-term impact assessment in 1983, sampling programs were directed to collect data specifically for this purpose. These data were used to estimate the size of the local flounder stock and the fraction of its annual production lost to CWIS effects, and also evaluate a possible relationship between late-winter water temperatures and recruitment success of flounder. Since the mid 1980s, the main assessment tool at Millstone has been an age-structured population model that incorporated uncertainty in selected model parameters and provided output suitable for probabilistic analyses of simulation results. This model projected annual population sizes resulting from different fishing rates, larval entrainment losses, and impingement of juvenile and adult fish. Compensation was introduced via a Ricker stock-recruit function with an additional term to describe the effect of water temperature on recruitment success. Ricker’s α parameter, which describes the species inherent capacity to increase in numbers, was derived by four indirect methods based on life history parameters. In the basic simulation strategy, an unfished flounder stock was simulated first, and then fishing effects and mortality of the young attributed to CWIS effects were added. Combinations of different fishing rates and CWIS effects, either estimated or hypothesized, could be simulated for comparing the effectiveness of different mitigation alternatives. This approach helped identify fishing mortality as the driving force shaping the future size and viability of the local flounder population at Millstone and suggested that larval entrainment mitigation measures, costing hundreds of millions of dollars, would be ineffective in reversing currently declining trends of that population.     

Bus fleet emissions: new strategies for mitigation by adopting natural gas

Energy consumption is related to local, regional and global impacts. Thus, by comparing different replacement scenarios of diesel vehicles with compressed natural gas, this article estimates pollutants and greenhouse gases emission in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. The calculation of fuel consumption is based on fleet characteristics, in terms of vehicle age, the average annual distance travelled by bus depending on the year and average fuel consumption. These values served as a basis to develop scenarios considering that a percentage of new vehicles that will be phased out and replaced with ones running on natural gas. Results show that the total avoided emissions can range from 579 thousand tons to 1.375 million tons of carbon dioxide (CO₂₎ over 20 years, depending on the scenario. For particulate matter, accumulated avoided emissions vary from 251 thousand to 584 tons over 20 years. The replacement of diesel buses with natural gas-fuelled buses presents favourable results, in comparison with the tendency scenario for CO₂ and particulate matter. Thus, a public policy for fuel replacement in largest cities, such as Sao Paulo, has an important global impact, especially when allowing the introduction of a renewable energy source, such as biogas. It will benefit from the natural gas previous infrastructure, which is largely available in Brazil. As recommendations, we explain the need to review the city of Sao Paulo Climate Change Law to allow the use of natural gas. Fuel replacement should be integrated with a public policy/public policies and operational strategies to promote citizens´ health as well as historical, cultural and heritage conservation for the city and its future generations.     

北太平洋柔鱼渔场时空分布与海洋环境要素的研究

根据2010 年7~9月和2011年7~10月“舟渔1301#” 2个航次的北太平洋柔鱼渔场海上调查资料,利用渔获生产数据?海况天气数据以及同期的卫星遥感获取的海表面温度(SST) ?海表盐度(SSS)及叶绿素a (Chl-a)浓度和海流等数据,分析柔鱼的中心渔场分布与海洋环境的变动关系.研究结果显示:整个调查期间渔获频次在SST和Chl-a因子上均呈正态分布,渔场高产的最适SST范围为18~20℃, 最适SSS范围为33.60‰~34.80‰, 最适Chl-a浓度范围为0.08~0.24mg/m3,其中SST与柔鱼渔场之间有较好的匹配关系,中心渔场通常位于18~20℃的等温线附近,且位置一般出现在冷水团和暖水团交汇区的冷水团一侧;中心渔场位于亲潮和黑潮交汇混合区的向北一侧,离交汇地带的距离较近,而且随着时间的推移,渔汛期间中心渔场的位置逐步往其向西北方向移动.总体上多个环境因子皆可作为确定潜在中心渔场的指标,但以海表水温为最佳,另外辅助寒?暖流的交汇情况以及Chl-a浓度?天气海况等因素来综合分析,判断渔场的中心位置会更准确.     

Life cycle analysis and choice of natural gas-based automotive alternative fuels in Chongqing Municipality,China

Road transport produces significant amounts of emissions by using crude oil as the primary energy source. A reduction of emissions can be achieved by implementing alternative fuel chains. The objective of this study is to carry out an economic, environmental and energy (EEE) life cycle study on natural gas-based automotive fuels with conventional gasoline in an abundant region of China. A set of indices of four fuels/vehicle systems on the basis of life cycle are assessed in terms of impact of EEE, in which natural gas produces compressed natural gas (CNG), methanol, dimethylether (DME) and Fischer Tropsch diesel (FTD). The study included fuel production, vehicle production, vehicle operation, infrastructure and vehicle end of life as a system for each fuel/vehicle system. A generic gasoline fueled car is used as a baseline. Data have been reviewed and modified based on the best knowledge available to Chongqing local sources. Results indicated that when we could not change electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles into commercial vehicles on a large scale, direct use of CNG in a dedicated or bi-fuel vehicle is an economical choice for the region which is most energy efficient and more environmental friendly. The study can be used to support decisions on how natural gas resources can best be utilized as a fuel/energy resource for automobiles, and what issues need to be resolved in Chongqing. The models and approaches for this study can be applied to other regions of China as long as all the assumptions are well defined and modified to find a substitute automotive energy source and establish an energy policy in a specific region.     

东海区渔业资源的区域合作管理与共同养护

长期以来,东海区一直是中、日、韩三国海洋渔业的传统作业渔场。由于长期的过度捕捞,东海区的主要经济鱼类总体上已严重衰退,需紧急加以养护。东海区多数经济鱼类的洄游经过中、日、韩三国近海,养护与管理好该区的渔业资源,需三国共同参与,这也顺应了《联合国海洋法公约》的规定。长期以来,中、日、韩三国在东海区的渔业生产与管理中建立了比较密切的合作关系,为三国合作管理与共同养护东海区渔业资源奠定了良好的基础。由于目前东海区进行渔业资源的区域合作管理与共同养护还面临一些困难,因此,可以分近期和远期实施不同的区域合作管理与共同养护方案,近期实施以控制捕捞努力量为主体的管理方案,远期实施以总可捕量(Totalallowablecatch,TAC)制度为主体的管理方案。     

Implementing the hydrogen economy

In the Icelandic community the use of renewable energy and the tests with a clean domestic fuel that most people refer to as the fuel of the future have become the points of focus. In Reykjavik this future has arrived. Hydrogen is used currently as the energy carrier within the public transportation system and is electrolyzed from water with hydroelectric power and leaves the system as water again.A small collaboration platform, Icelandic New Energy Ltd (INE), has been working on projects related to hydrogen as an energy carrier since 1999. A number of projects and feasibility studies are currently being carried out in Reykjavik, revolving around the issue of making hydrogen domestically from water and renewable energy (hydro and geothermal power), abundant local resources.In April 2003 the first electrolytic hydrogen production, compression and filling station was inaugurated in Reykjavik. The refueling station is designed to be open to public services. The hydrogen station is a delivery to be tested within the project ECTOS, the Ecological City Transport System — a fuel cell bus demonstration running between 2003 and 2005. A socioeconomic and environmental research methodology has been established and followed for three years now. The outcomes of ECTOS are needed to establish the basis of further decisions of integrating hydrogen into societal functions. Amongst the undertakings is a forecast for the scale and costs of the essential infrastructure. General surveys have shown that Icelanders have a high general acceptance towards using hydrogen as a fuel for the transportation sector and fishing vessels. Therefore it is presumed that hydrogen fuel stations need only to be established in a limited number before hydrogen fuel vehicles can be introduced in the public market. Yet, a realistic time-frame depends on the hands-on experience, the performance and availability of the equipment in the market. In 2005 the outcomes and experiences from the ECTOS project will be published.     

Cleaner production alternatives: Biomass utilisation options

The increasing price of energy, the security of supply, the reduction of green house gases, and the scarcity of oil and gas urge the use of more and more renewable energy. An important renewable energy source is the biomass which can be applied for heat, electricity, and transportation fuel production. The heat and electricity production are the so called “direct utilisation” alternatives and the transportation fuel production alternatives are the “indirect utilisation” alternatives of biomass energy. If efficient land use is considered, the alternatives can be compared on the basis of the utilisable energy produced from the biomass per hectare. It is shown that the bioethanol production from corn has about 89–99% less energy production capability than that of the direct utilisation alternatives. The cellulosic type bioethanol production technologies, since these partially directly utilise the biomass energy, have better energy utilisation potential, that is about 40–50% of direct alternatives.     

Biological and economic optima in a tropical grazing ecosystem in Australia

Our aim in this study was to identify the economically optimal level of use of resources for a grazing system in tropical Australia and to compare it with the biological optimum. Grazing management trials were conducted in the Ord River irrigation area of north-western Australia. Biologists at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization provided the biological data. The liveweight gains of Kimberley shorthorn steers were recorded, after a 1-year fattening period, for different grazing management strategies. Five different stocking rates were used on irrigated pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens) fertilized with nitrogen at five different rates. All other were applied at fixed, non-limiting levels.The results of the trials were modelled by a liveweight gain production function. This production function was used in an income simulation model to identify economically optimal (profit maximizing) stocking rates. This was done in two stages. First, a base analysis was undertaken on the basis o the economic conditions prevailing in September 1987. Second, sensitivity analysis was applied to the results of the base analysis. The parameters varied were the rate of interest, store cattle prices, finished cattle prices, transport costs and the length of the planning horizon.The biological optimum, when defined as maximum liveweight gain ha⁻¹, corresponds to a much higher intensity of use of resources than the economic optimum, and yields substantially lower profits or higher losses. These discrepancies increase when economic conditions worsen, or when the planning horizon of graziers is decreased from 50 to 10 years. Therefore, the adoption of the biological optimum cannot result in an econonomically stable grazing system in the medium to long term, when it is highly likely that economic parameters will fluctuate. The economic stability of the system is increased, but is still quite weak, if the economically optimal input combination is utilized. It was not possible to determine whether this economic optimum would result in long-term ecological stability because the relevant data were not collected during the trials.The relevance of management recommendations made to graziers and land administrators would be increased if these recommendations were based on an analysis of both the economic and the ecological stability of grazing systems over the medium to long term. We show in the last part of this study how this could be accomplished.