城市水生态足迹研究——以北京市为例

以"水"为要素评价城市资源利用的可持续性,并以水资源短缺的北京市为案例城市进行剖析.探讨了城市水生态足迹的内涵和4种典型城市水生态足迹的发展轨迹,提出了基于城市生态需水量的水生态足迹的核算方法.对案例城市北京的研究结果表明:(1)北京城市河湖多年平均生态需水量为10.45×108m3,地下水多年平均生态需水量为26.34×108m3;(2)北京市多年平均的水生态足迹为1.42.以上结果表明北京的水资源利用是不可持续的.     

Water footprint: methodologies and a case study for assessing the impacts of water use

The methodologies, approaches and indicators for assessing the impacts of freshwater usage are still evolving. The development of the water footprint concept has been an important step in this direction but the existing methodologies mainly assess the quantity of water used rather than the related impacts. Although there is a recognised need to consider the latter, particularly on a life cycle basis, the difficulty is that there are little or no reliable data on water usage in life cycle databases; furthermore, there is no agreed life cycle impact assessment method for estimating impacts related to freshwater use. However, there have been some methodological developments which propose methods for inventory modelling and impact assessment for water use in life cycle assessment. This paper reviews some of these approaches and discusses their strengths and limitations through a case study, which considers the impacts of freshwater consumption from corn-derived ethanol produced in 12 different countries. The results show a huge variation in the results between different methods and demonstrate the need for a standardised methodology for assessing the impacts of water use on a life cycle basis. Specific recommendations for further research in this field have been made accordingly.     

基于产品水足迹核算的印染企业生产节水潜力分析:案例研究

针对目前我国工业企业节水潜力分析准确程度不足的现状,以纺织印染企业为对象,根据水足迹评价方法建立了印染企业产品水足迹精确测算方法,从产品层面说明回用水和雨水收集对于水足迹的削减作用.结果表明,应用水回用及雨水收集利用后,单位产品新鲜水用量降低了11.3%,单位产品总工业用水量降低了10.4%.本研究将水平衡分析、水足迹评价与印染企业自身特点相结合,为企业内产品生产层面的节水分析提供了依据,并为企业的精细化节水路线设计提供了支持.     

The water footprint of hydroelectricity: a methodological comparison from a case study in New Zealand

Hydroelectricity has been rated to have a large water footprint (WF) on global average. We assessed the WF of hydroelectricity by three different methods using New Zealand as a case study. The first (WF-1) and second (WF-2) methods only consider the consumptive water use of the hydroelectricity generation system, while our third method (WF-3) accounts for the net water balance. Irrespective of the method, the WF of New Zealand’s hydroelectricity was found much smaller than the commonly cited international value of 22 m³ GJ⁻¹. Depending on the method, the national WF ranged from 1.55 m³ GJ⁻¹ (WF-3) to 6.05 m³ GJ⁻¹ (WF-1). The WF- 3 considers the net water balance including rainfall, which is the key driver for replenishing water resources. It provides meaningful information that helps our understanding of the differences of the WF in locations, which are diverse in terms of water resource availability. We highlight the effects of local climatic differences and the structural specifics of a hydroelectricity scheme on the WF. The large variation in the WF of hydropower across New Zealand illustrates the inappropriateness of using global average values. Local values, calculated using our hydrologically rational method, must be used.     

The water supply footprint (WSF): a strategic planning tool for sustainable regional and local water supplies

This paper introduces a new methodological approach of the ecological footprint explicitly addressing the sustainability of water supplies, which we call the water supply footprint (WSF). The WSF calculates the catchment area or water supply hinterland of a certain society and can serve as a strategic planning tool for local or regional water supplies linking the water demand with the water supply in a water supply footprint matrix. Based on regional water balances it estimates how much water can be appropriated for human use in an environmentally sustainable way.The proposed method is tested on the South East Queensland water supply in Australia, an area where water use restrictions are regularly imposed on the population. Applying the proposed method indicates that supply shortages may be avoided by considerably changing the organisation of water supply, thereby reducing and possibly even avoiding the necessity for large-scale supply side measures like additional sweet water reservoirs or desalination plants. In that way it is demonstrated that the WSF method is applicable at an early and strategic stage of water supply planning.     

The water footprint of food waste: case study of fresh mango in Australia

In many parts of the world, freshwater is already a scarce and overexploited natural resource, raising concerns about global food security and damage to freshwater ecosystems. This situation is expected to intensify with the FAO estimating that world food production must double by 2050. Food chains must therefore become much more efficient in terms of consumptive water use. For the small and geographically well-defined Australian mango industry, having an average annual production of 44,692 t of marketable fresh fruit, the average virtual water content (sum of green, blue and gray water) at orchard gate was 2298 l kg^?1. However, due to wastage in the distribution and consumption stages of the product life cycle, the average virtual water content of 1 kg of Australian-grown fresh mango consumed by an Australian household was 5218 l. This latter figure compares to an Australian-equivalent water footprint of 217 l kg^?1, which is the volume of direct water use in Australia having an equivalent potential to contribute to water scarcity. Nationally, distribution and consumption waste in the food chain of Australian-grown fresh mango to Australian households represented an annual waste of 26.7 Gl of green water and 16.6 Gl of blue water. These findings suggest that interventions to reduce food chain waste will likely have as great or even greater impact on freshwater resource availability as other water use efficiency measures in agriculture and food production.     

基于水劣化足迹的城市发展的水环境效应评价——以北京市为例

水劣化足迹是反映污染物排放对水质影响程度的一种评价方法和指标.为了评估和揭示北京市城市发展的水环境效应,本文基于水劣化足迹评价的方法框架,发展和完善相关模型和参数,选取关键污染因子,对北京市2004—2013年水体酸化足迹、水体富营养化足迹和水体生态毒性足迹进行了评价,进而对水劣化足迹与部分城市发展指标的相关关系进行了分析.结果显示:12004—2013年北京市水酸化足迹逐年减小,由2004年的19.1×107kg SO_2eq减少到2013年的8.7×107kg SO_2eq,污染排放对水体酸化的影响有所减弱;2水体富营养化足迹在2004—2009年和2010—2013年两个时间段内总体均呈现减少趋势,但后一时间段内水体富营养化绝对值总体高于前一时间段.2004—2009年,水体富营养化足迹减少了约1.5×10~7kg NO_3eq,而从2010—2013年减少了约0.8×107kg NO_3~-eq;2011年至2013年期间,基于新增污染物(氨氮、总氮和总磷)计算的水体富营养化足迹减少了2.4×10~7kg NO_3eq.从其组成来看,水体富营养化的关键因素为总磷;3选取铅(Pb)、汞(Hg)、铬(Cr)、镉(Cd)、砷(As)5种重金属污染物,对北京市2011—2013年的水体生态毒性足迹进行评价发现,水体生态毒性足迹从4234.7×106m3H_2O eq增加到4653.1×106m3H2O eq.从其组成来看,重金属水体生态毒性足迹的关键污染因子为镉(Cd);4水劣化足迹与城市发展特征指标的关系分析显示,人口数量增速减缓、产业结构调整(第二产业向第三产业转化)以及农业化肥用量的减少,对于水劣化足迹的改善有积极作用.     

气候变化综合评估工具——以密云水库供水项目为例

气候变化的影响导致发展投资的效率和效益产生风险,其潜在的影响会阻碍中国经济和社会的发展。论文开发了一个综合评估工具,旨在评估气候变化对工程项目的影响以及适应性措施的经济效益,并将这一分析框架运用密云水库水供给项目的评估。 结果显示未来气候变化情景下,密云水库水供给量将会受到极大影响。而收益-成本分析和多目标分析结果显示,采用水田改旱地、引滦入潮、污水处理等适应性措施,在技术上和经济上将是可行的。图4表3参22     

干旱区旅游业用水供需适配性评价模型及应用——以中国新疆为例

干旱区旅游业在促进区域社会经济发展的同时,也加剧了地区的水资源供需矛盾。针对中国干旱区水资源禀赋及旅游产业的特点,提出干旱区旅游业用水供需适配性评价模型。按照旅游业产值对地区生产总值贡献率、旅游业从业人员占地区就业人员比例、地区水资源禀赋约束等指标,构建综合测算干旱区旅游业用水供给量测算模型;从旅游“食、住、行、游、娱、购”全要素视角,建立由餐饮水足迹、住宿水足迹、能源水足迹、游览水足迹、购物水足迹等账户组成的旅游业用水需求量测算模型;针对“供给”与“需求”水量的数量关系,利用组合分析方法,构建旅游业用水供需适配性程度指数评价模型,并设定评价阈值,测算干旱区旅游业用水供给与需求适配性程度的评价等级。实证分析了新疆2025年旅游业用水供需适配性程度,得出结论：为使旅游业用水维持在“供需基本平衡”或“供需平衡”的状态,新疆旅游业规模最高发展速度应在15%以内,同时新疆政府必须保持社会用水量年均节水率在0.95%及以上;而如某年发生突发性事件,则其之后年份的旅游业规模发展速度可放宽至20%。     

基于生态系统供给及净化服务功能的贵州省水生态占用研究

针对传统及现有水生态足迹理论及其模型存在的缺陷与不足,本文提出了基于生态系统供给及净化服务功能的贵州省水生态占用概念与模型,将其划分为生物生产和非生物生产的水生态占用两部分,建立水产品、水资源、水环境3类账户,并在此基础上以2000—2014年的贵州省为例进行计算分析,结果表明:(1)水产品账户中,贵州省水产品消费的水生态占用总体呈上升趋势,水生态承载力波动变化较小,水产品消费呈生态赤字状态,且其生态压力较大;(2)水资源账户中,贵州省淡水资源的水生态占用整体呈逐渐上升趋势,水生态承载力则呈明显波动的趋势,且变化幅度较大,淡水资源消费处于生态盈余状态,且其与水生态承载力的变化态势一致,淡水资源消费的生态压力较小;(3)水环境账户中,水环境生态压力主要来源于氮污染,2000—2010年消纳污染的水生态占用变化不大,2011—2014年波动较大,历年生活水污染账户值均大于工业,今后要注重加强生活水污染防治,消纳污染的水生态承载力呈波动变化的趋势,水环境处于生态赤字状态,且其生态压力较高;(4)与现有生态足迹模型的比较分析可知:该模型核算更为全面;不考虑均衡因子,并以最大水生态压力指数来评价区域水生态系统所承受的压力状态具有合理性,更能准确反映贵州水生态的实际情况和水生态文明建设的需要.     

水足迹视角下黄土高原经济林果扩张的水安全风险分析——以苹果种植为例

以苹果为主的黄土高原经济林果种植规模持续扩张,耗水量不断增多,潜在的水安全风险增大。量化苹果生产水足迹,讨论苹果生产扩张带来的水安全风险,对科学指导未来黄土高原苹果健康发展具有重要意义。本文基于ArcGIS和CROPWAT软件,选取2000—2019年黄土高原44个市（州）,探究了苹果水足迹的时空分布规律及水安全风险。结果表明：2000—2019年,黄土高原苹果种植面积增长了1.3倍,产量增长了3.1倍,呈“北移西扩”的发展趋势;苹果绿水足迹占比的空间分布与降雨量基本一致,从东南向西北递减,蓝水足迹空间分布正好相反;苹果水足迹总量从74.42亿m³增长到108.04亿m³,占农业耗水量的比例由42.78%提升至65.63%,灰水足迹占比高达13.88%,黄土高原苹果生产面临严峻的水安全风险。因此,应适度控制黄土高原苹果种植规模的进一步扩张。本文可为评价黄土高原苹果种植规模扩张背后的水安全风险提供依据。     

基于能值定理的生态足迹模型修正研究

能值生态足迹模型是定量分析区域可持续发展的重要方法,然而其计算未考虑到经济发展和科技进步对生态承载力的影响,得出的结论往往具有一定的误差.因此,本文引入社会经济虚拟承载力账户对该模型进行修正,并以长沙市为例进行验证.结果表明:通过相关性对比分析,修正模型可突破传统模型具有生态偏向的弱可持续性评价局限,其计算结果更加科学合理.基于修正模型,2000~2011年长沙市的生态承载力变化不大,年均值为2.31hm2/人,而生态足迹呈现快速增长趋势,年均值为2.44hm2/人.这导致该地区出现逐年加剧的生态超载现象,年人均生态赤字为0.13hm2/人.通过多元统计分析方法得出,农牧业生产和重工业能耗的压力大是造成其生态赤字的主要原因.     

应用海洋水库技术改善区域自然及供水环境研究——以澳大利亚莫瑞-达令盆地为例

澳大利亚的莫瑞-达令盆地具有极其重要的经济、资源、环境和生态价值,两条最重要的河流——莫瑞河（River Murray）和达令河（River Darling ）横贯其中。近年来,由于“千年干旱”引发了流域内盐度上升、鱼类大量死亡及土壤酸化等一系列生态环境问题,使得下游阿德莱德地区的淡水资源供应更加紧缺。本文吸取下游亚历山大湖水库设计失败的教训,试图通过多用途海洋水库技术改善区域自然环境及供水环境,增加阿德莱德地区高质量淡水供应量,缓解区域河流干涸现象,力求实现区域可持续发展的同时恢复区域环境流量。此外,通过海洋水库技术研究,为改善我国沿海地区的自然环境及供水环境提供相关建议,从而实现我国入海淡水资源的有效管理。     

Reside0ntial solar water heating as a potential Clean Development Mechanism project: A South African case study

A community-based Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project – asolar water heating project in a low-income community in South Africa –is analysed to illustrate the methodological and policy challenges that faceimplementation of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change. We evaluate four baseline options, andthree potential CDM interventions. The emissions reductions range from –670 to +5 929 Mg CO₂ per year, with all option but oneshowing positive emission reductions. Using metered solar water heatingwith liquefied petroleum gas back-up as the CDM intervention, and electricstorage geysers as the baseline, the annual emissions reductions are 5686 Mg CO₂. The cost-effectiveness from the national perspective,which is the incremental life cycle costs divided by the lifetime emissionsreductions, is –$18 per Mg CO₂ From the perspective of theCDM investor, however, the cost-effectiveness is $5.2 per mgCO₂, assuming that the investor receives all of the carbon credits forproviding the incremental capital investment. From our analysis, weconclude that using the current technology (kerosene stoves) as a baselineis probably not appropriate because it does not reflect likely future trendsand also penalises the community for their poverty and current lack ofinfrastructure. We also highlight the importance of credit sharing, and howit affects the cost-effectiveness of the project from the CDM investor'sperspective. The lessons from this analysis are important for the currentinternational policy debate on how to preferentially treat small-scale CDMprojects.     

Exploring effective policies for underground water management in artificial oasis: a system dynamics analysis of a case study of Yaoba Oasis

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EKC analysis for studying economic growth and environmental quality: a case study in China

Compared with the extensive research on the relationship between economic growth and environmental quality in developed countries, there is a paucity of an empirical research on studying the relation for developing countries. Based upon the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) theory, this paper develops regression models for investigating the relationship between economic growth and environmental quality in China. The EKC analysis based on six pollution indices is illustrated with a case study in Jiaxing of Zhejiang, China.     

Assessment of water pollution control strategies: a case study for the Dianchi Lake

Lake eutrophication has increasingly become a major environmental issue in China.Although significant efforts have been made towards its resolution in the last decade,most of the implemented control strategies are fragmented,and the formation of policy lacks of sound scientific basis and long-term objectives.Taking the well-known Dianchi Lake as a case study,this paper presented a comprehensive assessment for the effectiveness of various eutrophication control strategies.It is expected that the concluding lessons would have a major implication to future eutrophication control.     

河南省不同产业碳水足迹效率研究

碳水关联分析是当前区域可持续发展研究的重要方向之一。从区域碳水耦合视角开展产业碳水足迹效率研究不仅有助于揭示资源利用强度和效率对产业碳排放的影响机制,而且对于全球化背景下区域产业转型中的节水和碳减排具有重要的实践意义。采用2012年河南省投入产出表及各产业取水量和能源消费数据,利用投入产出分析对不同产业的碳水足迹效率进行了对比研究。主要结论如下：（1）碳足迹和水足迹存在着行业不匹配现象。其中,农业水足迹最大,是水足迹最小的木材业的2333倍;采掘业碳足迹最大,是碳足迹最小的食品业的273倍。（2）不同产业碳水足迹效率具有较大的差异。一般来说,足迹较大的产业其足迹效率偏低。（3）产业碳水足迹效率的差异主要受产业属性、水能消耗强度、能源结构、企业技术水平及产业关联情况等因素的影响。（4）建议未来河南省应结合不同产业的特点及水能关联情况制定差别化的节水与碳减排政策,加强制度约束和法律监管,推动企业水能资源高效利用,进一步增强区域适应和减缓气候变化的能力。     

Integrating carbon footprint into supply chain management: the case of Hyundai Motor Company (HMC) in the automobile industry

The purpose of this paper is to improve our understanding of carbon footprint within the context of automobile supply chain management. The case study approach is employed as a research method. Primary data were collected through site visits and extensive interviews with HMC’s corporate and plant management. First, identification and measurement of direct and indirect carbon footprint is critical for mitigating supply chain risks. Second, setting the system boundary of measurement is another important issue to integrate the issue of carbon footprint into supply chain management. Third, developing a map of product carbon footprint facilitates identification and measurement of carbon emissions across the supply chain. Companies today operate in a carbon-constrained world. In particular, the automobile industry is under pressure to take a close look at its product carbon footprint. Managing the downstream consequences of the use of its products and inputs from upstream suppliers is critical for developing carbon risk-mitigated supply chain management. This paper is of benefit to academics and managers by providing a new way to integrate carbon emissions in supply chain management. Since climate change and carbon footprint present challenges to many industries, increasing our understanding of how to integrate carbon footprint in supply chain management is necessary, but has seen little research in the automobile industry.     

Carbon estimation in harvested wood products using a country-specific method: Portugal as a case study

This study aims to contribute to the ongoing international debate on the choice of approaches and methods to be used for estimating the amount of carbon that has accumulated in harvested wood products (HWP), within the context of national greenhouse gas emission inventories. A method for estimating carbon accumulation in HWP was developed and applied to three accounting approaches currently under discussion, namely: the stock-change approach, the production approach and the atmospheric-flow approach. This method is consistent with tier 3 methods suggested by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.An estimation of the carbon accumulation in HWP in Portugal for the period 1990–2000 varied between 112 and 1016 Gg C year⁻¹. The atmospheric-flow approach provided the most favourable results for the whole period, largely because Portugal acted as a net exporter of carbon. The production approach ranked second, because the HWP exported were mainly produced from domestically grown wood. The uncertainty level of the estimates was in general lower than the uncertainty level expected when using a method based on generic default data. In conclusion, a simple method such as the one developed in this study may be used to estimate carbon accumulation in HWP with acceptable uncertainty levels, provided that country-specific data are available.