Improvement of health risk factors after reduction of VOC concentrations in industrial and urban areas

After reductions of fugitive and diffuse emissions by an industrial complex, a follow-up study was performed to determine the time variability of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and the lifetime cancer risk (LCR). Passive samplers (3 M monitors) were placed outdoors (n?=?179) and indoors (n?=?75) in industrial, urban, and control areas for 4 weeks. Twenty-five compounds including n-alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatics, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and terpenes were determined by GC/MS. The results show a significant decrease of all VOCs, especially in the industrial area and to a lesser extent in the urban area. The median outdoor concentration of benzene in the industrial area declined compared to the former study, around 85 % and about 50 % in the urban area, which in the past was strongly influenced by industrial emissions. Other carcinogenic compounds like styrene and tetrachloroethylene were reduced to approximately 60 %. VOC concentrations in control areas remained nearly unchanged. According to the determined BTEX ratios and interspecies correlations, in contrast to the previous study, traffic was identified as the main emission source in the urban and control areas and showed an increased influence in the industrial area. The LCR, calculated for benzene, styrene, and tetrachloroethylene, shows a decrease of one order of magnitude in accordance to the decreased total VOC concentrations and is now acceptable according to values proposed by the World Health Organization.     

Develop dynamic model for predicting traffic CO emissions in urban areas

The greater the use of energy in the transportation sectors, the higher the emission of carbon monoxide (CO), and hence inevitable harm to environment and human health. In this concern, measuring and predicting of CO emission from transportation sector—especially large cities—is important as it constitute 90 % of all CO emission. Many urban cities in developing world have not properly experienced such measurements or predictions. In this paper, for the first time, field measurements of traffic characteristics data and corresponding CO concentration have been performed for developing a model for predicting CO emissions from transportation sector for New Borg El Arab (NBC), Egypt. The performance of Swiss-German Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport (HBEFA v3.1) model has been assessed for predicting the CO concentration at roadside in the study area. Results indicated that HBEFA v3.1 underestimate emission figures. The developed CO dynamic emission model involves the traffic flow characteristics with roadside CO concentrations. Acceptable representation of measured CO concentration has been shown by the developed dynamic CO emission model which introduces R ²?=?0.77, mean biases and frictional biases of ?0.27 mg m^?3 and 0.09, respectively. A comparison between predicted CO concentrations using HBEFA v3.1 and the promoted dynamic model indicate that HBEFA v3.1 estimates CO emission concentrations in the study area with a mean error and frictional biases 159.26 and 233.33 %, respectively, higher than those of the developed model.     

A diagnostic comparison of measured and model-predicted speciated VOC concentrations

This study compares speciated model-predicted concentrations (i.e., mixing ratios) of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with measurements from the Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS) network at sites within the northeastern US during June–August of 2006. Measurements of total non-methane organic compounds (NMOC), ozone (O₃), oxides of nitrogen (NO_x) and reactive nitrogen species (NO_y) are used for supporting analysis. The measured VOC species were grouped into the surrogate classes used by the Carbon Bond IV (CB4) chemical mechanism. It was found that the model typically over-predicted all the CB4 VOC species, except isoprene, which might be linked to overestimated emissions. Even with over-predictions in the CB4 VOC species, model performance for daily maximum O₃ was typically within ±15%. Analysis at an urban site in NY, where both NMOC and NO_x data were available, suggested that the reasonable ozone performance may be possibly due to compensating overestimated NO_x concentrations, thus modulating the NMOC/NO_x ratio to be in similar ranges as that of observations.     

Application of OMI observations to a space-based indicator of NOx and VOC controls on surface ozone formation

We investigated variations in the relative sensitivity of surface ozone formation in summer to precursor species concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x) as inferred from the ratio of the tropospheric columns of formaldehyde to nitrogen dioxide (the “Ratio”) from the Aura Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI). Our modeling study suggests that ozone formation decreases with reductions in VOCs at Ratios <1 and NO_x at Ratios >2; both NO_x and VOC reductions may decrease ozone formation for Ratios between 1 and 2. Using this criteria, the OMI data indicate that ozone formation became: 1. more sensitive to NO_x over most of the United States from 2005 to 2007 because of the substantial decrease in NO_x emissions, primarily from stationary sources, and the concomitant decrease in the tropospheric column of NO₂, and 2. more sensitive to NO_x with increasing temperature, in part because emissions of highly reactive, biogenic isoprene increase with temperature, thus increasing the total VOC reactivity. In cities with relatively low isoprene emissions (e.g., Chicago), the data clearly indicate that ozone formation became more sensitive to NO_x from 2005 to 2007. In cities with relatively high isoprene emissions (e.g., Atlanta), we found that the increase in the Ratio due to decreasing NO_x emissions was not obvious as this signal was convolved with variations in the Ratio associated with the temperature dependence of isoprene emissions and, consequently, the formaldehyde concentration.     

The impact of NOx,CO and VOC emissions on the air quality of Zurich airport

To study the impact of emissions at an airport on local air quality, a measurement campaign at the Zurich airport was performed from 30 June 2004 to 15 July 2004. Measurements of NO, NO₂, CO and CO₂ were conducted with open path devices to determine real in-use emission indices of aircraft during idling. Additionally, air samples were taken to analyse the mixing ratios of volatile organic compounds (VOC). Temporal variations of VOC mixing ratios on the airport were investigated, while other air samples were taken in the plume of an aircraft during engine ignition. CO concentrations in the vicinity of the terminals were found to be highly dependent on aircraft movement, whereas NO concentrations were dominated by emissions from ground support vehicles. The measured emission indices for aircraft showed a strong dependence upon engine type. Our work also revealed differences from emission indices published in the emission data base of the International Civil Aviation Organisation. Among the VOC, reactive C₂–C₃ alkenes were found in significant amounts in the exhaust of an engine compared to ambient levels. Also, isoprene, a VOC commonly associated with biogenic emissions, was found in the exhaust, however it was not detected in refuelling emissions. The benzene to toluene ratio was used to discriminate exhaust from refuelling emission. In refuelling emissions, a ratio well below 1 was found, while for exhaust this ratio was usually about 1.7.     

Measurements of particulate carbon in urban and marine air in Japanese areas

A measurement method for particulate carbon in the atmosphere was developed and applied to carbon measurement in urban and marine air. The amount of particulate carbon collected on quartz fiber filter was determined by sample combustion to produce CO₂, followed by catalytic conversion of CO₂ to methane, and flame ionization detection. Organic and elemental carbon were separated by oxidation at 300°C. The detection limit of this method was 1 μg carbon 10 cm^/t-2 of sample filter.The respective concentrations of atmospheric total and elemental carbons ranged from 1.2 to 3.1 μgC m^/t-3 and 0.6 to 1.4 μgC m^/t-3 at Hachijo-jima, and 0.8 to 2.5 μgC m^/t-3 and 0.4 to 1.3 μgC m⁻³ at Chichi-jima, respectively in winter. On the Pacific coast of Japan in winter, away from Tokyo Bay, the total and elemental carbon concentrations were horizontally uniform with mean values of about 3 and l μgC m^/t-3, respectively in particles with diameter less than 6 μm. In Sapporo they ranged from 4.4 to 14.5 μgC m^/t-3 and 2.3 to 8.0 μgC m^/t-3, respectively from January to December in 1982.In winter marine air, particulate elemental carbon comprised about 10% of total aerosol mass if sea-salt particles were excluded from the aerosol, and it was 9–23 % of total aerosol mass in Sapporo. The ratio of excess sulfate to elemental carbon could be a good indicator of the formation of sulfate in the atmosphere.     

Comparison of ozone temporal scales for large urban, small urban, and rural areas in Georgia

Ground-level ozone (O3) time series are characterized by the sum of several distinct temporal scales: long-term, seasonal, synoptic, diurnal (daily), and intraday variation. In this study, the authors use a Kolmorogov-Zurbenko filter to separate the 1981-2001 O3 time-series from many sites in and around Georgia into these various components. The authors compare the temporal components to examine differences between small and large metropolitan areas and between urban and rural areas. They then focus on the synoptic component to define a predominant transport region or airshed for each site.     

VOC amounts in ambient areas of a high-technology science park in Taiwan: their reciprocal correlations and impact on inhabitants

Introduction  

This study presents bihourly, seasonal, and yearly concentration changes in volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the inlet and effluent water of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) of a high-technology science park (HTIP) in Taiwan, with the VOC amounts at different sites correlated geologically.     

Ranking ecosystem services delivered by trees in urban and rural areas

Policies and strategies for tree management and protection on a national, regional, and local level have not sufficiently considered differences between rural and urban areas. We used expert knowledge to compare rural and urban areas in a case study evaluating the relative importance of ecosystem services (ES) in policy development. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and focus group discussions were used to rank 17 ES, representing four classes of services: provisioning, regulating, habitat, and cultural. The results indicated that effective protection strategies, beyond simply increasing general tree cover, should consider specific benefits trees provide to local communities. We discuss the role of objective prioritization of ES delivered by trees in urban and rural areas and their consequences for decision-making processes.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13280-022-01722-2.     

Temporal variations of atmospheric aerosol in four European urban areas

Purpose

The concentrations of PM₁₀ mass, PM_2.5 mass and particle number were continuously measured for 18 months in urban background locations across Europe to determine the spatial and temporal variability of particulate matter.

Methods

Daily PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 samples were continuously collected from October 2002 to April 2004 in background areas in Helsinki, Athens, Amsterdam and Birmingham. Particle mass was determined using analytical microbalances with precision of 1 ??g. Pre- and post-reflectance measurements were taken using smoke-stain reflectometers. One-minute measurements of particle number were obtained using condensation particle counters.

Results

The 18-month mean PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 mass concentrations ranged from 15.4 ??g/m³ in Helsinki to 56.7 ??g/m³ in Athens and from 9.0 ??g/m³ in Helsinki to 25.0 ??g/m³ in Athens, respectively. Particle number concentrations ranged from 10,091 part/cm³ in Helsinki to 24,180 part/cm³ in Athens with highest levels being measured in winter. Fine particles accounted for more than 60% of PM₁₀ with the exception of Athens where PM_2.5 comprised 43% of PM₁₀. Higher PM mass and number concentrations were measured in winter as compared to summer in all urban areas at a significance level p?Conclusions Significant quantitative and qualitative differences for particle mass across the four urban areas in Europe were observed. These were due to strong local and regional characteristics of particulate pollution sources which contribute to the heterogeneity of health responses. In addition, these findings also bear on the ability of different countries to comply with existing directives and the effectiveness of mitigation policies.     

VOC in an urban and industrial harbor on the French North Sea coast during two contrasted meteorological situations

Two measurement campaigns of volatile organic compounds (VOC) were carried out in the industrial city of Dunkerque, using Radiello passive samplers during winter (16–23 January) and summer (6–13 June) 2007. 174 compounds were identified belonging to six chemical families. Classifying sampling sites with similar chemical profiles by hierarchical ascending classification resulted in 4 groups that reflected the influence of the main industrial and urban sources of pollution. Also, the BTEX (Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylenes) quantification allowed us to map their levels of concentration. Benzene and toluene (BT) showed high concentrations in Northern Dunkerque reflecting the influence of two industrial plants. Differences among spatial distributions of the BT concentrations over contrasted meteorological conditions were also observed. An atypical ratio of T/B in the summer samples led us to investigate the BTEX origins shedding light on the contribution of pollutants transported across various zones of VOC emissions situated in Europe.     

Quantification of sources of PCBs to the atmosphere in urban areas: A comparison of cities in North America, Western Europe and former Yugoslavia

We present estimated emission source strengths of seven polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners for Banja Luka, a city that was affected by the civil war in Bosnia and Hercegovina (former Yugoslavia) in the 1990s. These emission estimates are compared to PCB emission rates estimated for the cities of Zurich, Switzerland, and Chicago, USA using an approach that combines multimedia mass balance modeling and measurement data. Our modeled per-capita emission estimates for Banja Luka are lower by a factor of ten than those for Zurich and Chicago, which are similar. This indicates that the sources of PCB emissions in Banja Luka are likely to be weaker than in the Western European and North American cities which show relatively high PCB emissions. Our emission rates from the three cities agree within a factor of ten with emission estimates from a global PCB emission inventory derived from production and usage estimates and emission factors.     

Eco-industrial zones in the context of sustainability development of urban areas

Industry is one of the main activities in the city and in many cities of the world, and the dominant industrial zones are the most significant morphological forms of concentration of industrial facilities in the city and are concentrated industrial and business activity. Industrial parks combine activities related to energy and resource consumption, emissions, waste generation, economic benefits, and regional development. The focus of this work is the path of transformation between the present and the vision of a sustainable city in the future. The problem and the subject of research related to two related objects of research: the city and sustainable development. In this paper, the co-author’s industrial symbiosis parks, modern tendencies of the spatial distribution of productive activities, circular economy, to attract leading corporations and open the way for new ventures while preserving the living environment in an urban area.

     

Emissions of biogenic VOC from forest ecosystems in central Europe: Estimation and comparison with anthropogenic emission inventory

This paper describes a method of estimating emission fluxes of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) based on the approach proposed by Guenther et al. (1995) and the high-resolution Corine land-cover 2000 database (1 × 1 km resolution). The computed emission fluxes for the Czech Republic (selected for analysis as being representative of a heavily cultivated, central European country) are compared with anthropogenic emissions, both for the entire country and for individual administrative regions. In some regions, BVOC emissions are as high as anthropogenic emissions; however, in most regions the BVOC emissions are approximately 50% of the anthropogenic emissions. The yearly course of BVOC emissions (represented by monoterpenes and isoprene) is presented, along with the spatial distribution of annual mean values. Differences in emission distributions during winter (January) and summer (June) are also considered.     

Spatial distribution of submicrometre particles and CO in an urban microscale environment

Traffic is the major source of submicrometre particles in an urban environment but the spatial distribution of particles around an urban site has not been measured. The aim of this paper was to investigate the relationship of CO and particles at a busy central urban location surrounded by buildings. This study measured the concentration and size distribution of submicrometre particles at a fixed location and concentrations of submicrometre particles and CO at 10 locations around a square site in the Brisbane Central Business District (CBD). Changes in concentration were assessed as a function of traffic volume and wind direction and speed.Fixed site measurements of submicrometre particle number concentration varied between 7.9×10² (±40) and 2.6×10⁵ (±1.3×10⁴) cm⁻³ and showed a strong positive correlation with traffic flow rate, confirming that vehicles were the major source of urban submicrometre particles. The particle concentration decreased exponentially with increasing wind speed.Average particle concentrations around the site ranged between 19.7×10³ (±8.2×10³) and 32.5×10³ (±16.6×10³) cm⁻³. Analysis of the particle measurements around the site showed that time and location both had a statistically significant effect on mean particle concentration around the square over the period of the study.Around the site, CO concentration was relatively constant (within instrument error), ranging between 2.2 (±1.9) and 4.5 (±3.0) ppm. Again both time and location had a statistically significant effect on CO concentration during the measurement period. However, CO concentration was not significantly correlated to particle number concentration around the site and examination of between-site comparisons with the two pollutants showing different spatial and temporal trends.The significant difference in the concentration trends between the locations around the square indicates that there is considerable inhomogeneity in the particle concentration around the site. One implication of this is that careful thought must be given to locations of air intakes of air-conditioning systems in urban environments.     

Isocyanatocyclohexane and isothiocyanatocyclohexane levels in urban and industrial areas and possible emission-related activities

Isocyanatocyclohexane and isothiocyanatocyclohexane are becoming relevant compounds in urban and industrial air, as they are used in important amounts in automobile industry and building insulation, as well as in the manufacture of foams, rubber, paints and varnishes. Glass multi-sorbent tubes (Carbotrap, Carbopack, Carboxen) were connected to LCMA-UPC pump samplers for the retention of iso- and isothiocyanatocyclohexanes. The analysis was performed by automatic thermal desorption (ATD) coupled with capillary gas chromatography (GC)/mass spectrometry detector (MSD). TD-GC/MS was chosen as analytical method due to its versatility and the possibility of analysis of a wide range of volatility and polarity VOC in air samples. The method was satisfactory sensitive, selective and reproducible for the studied compounds. The concentrations of iso- and isothioisocyanatocyclohexanes were evaluated in different urban, residential and industrial locations from extensive VOC air quality and odour episode studies in several cities in the Northeastern edge of Spain. Around 200–300 VOC were determined qualitatively in each sample. Higher values of iso- and isothiocyanatocyclohexane were found in industrial areas than in urban or residential locations. The concentrations ranged between n.d.−246 and n.d.−29 μg m⁻³ for isocyanatocyclohexane and isothiocyanatocyclohexane, respectively, for industrial areas. On the other hand, urban and residential locations showed concentrations ranging between n.d.−164 and n.d.−29 μg m⁻³ for isocyanatocyclohexane and isothiocyanatocyclohexane, respectively. The site location (urban or industrial), the kind and nearness of possible iso- and isothiocyanatocyclohexane emission activities (industrial or building construction) and the changes of wind regimes throughout the year have been found the most important factors influencing the concentrations of these compounds in the different places.     

Relation between lead in air and in petrol in two urban areas of Britain

The recent reduction in the lead content of petrol in the United Kingdom, following government legislation, has been used to investigate the relationship between lead in petrol and in outside air in urban environments. In parts of London and Manchester, the airborne lead concentration closely followed the petrol lead concentration, within a time resolution of about 1 month. These results indicate that, in these areas, the petrol lead content has a fairly direct and prompt effect on the urban air lead concentration, i.e. any environmental lead reservoirs in the pathway from petrol to air (and hence to man by inhalation) are not significant on this timescale. A small component of the airborne lead, apparently independent of the petrol lead, was also observed.     

Estimating long-term population exposure to ozone in urban areas of Europe

Tropospheric ozone concentrations regarded as harmful for human health are frequently encountered in Central Europe in summertime. Although ozone formation generally results from precursors transported over long distances, in urban areas local effects, such as reactions due to nearby emission sources, play a major role in determining ozone concentrations. Europe-wide mapping and modeling of population exposure to high ozone concentrations is subject to many uncertainties, because small-scale phenomena in urban areas can significantly change ozone levels from those of the surroundings. Currently the integrated assessment modeling of European ozone control strategies is done utilizing the results of large-scale models intended for estimating the rural background ozone levels. This paper presents an initial study on how much local nitrogen oxide (NOx) concentrations can explain variations between large-scale ozone model results and urban ozone measurements, on one hand, and between urban and nearby rural measurements, on the other. The impact of urban NOx concentrations on ozone levels was derived from chemical equations describing the ozone balance. The study investigated the applicability of the method for improving the accuracy of modeled population exposure, which is needed for efficient control strategy development. The method was tested with NOx and ozone measurements from both urban and rural areas in Switzerland and with the ozone predictions of the large-scale photochemical model currently used in designing Europe-wide control strategies for ground-level ozone. The results suggest that urban NOx levels are a significant explanatory factor in differences between urban and nearby rural ozone concentrations and that the phenomenon could be satisfactorily represented with this kind of method. Further research efforts should comprise testing of the method in more locations and analyzing the performance of more widely applicable ways of deriving the initial parameters.     

Numerical simulation of air pollution in urban areas: model performance

The numerical model developed in the first part of this investigation is applied to assess the behavior of sulfur dioxide and sulfate concentration distributions in an urban area using the St Louis Regional Air Pollution Study (RAPS) data. Statistical techniques chosen to determine the accuracy and uncertainty associated with the numerical model results include paired analysis and resampling analysis. The results of the numerical model are also compared with those of RAM, a Gaussian plume model. Finally, the behavior of point and area emission sources in an urban area is assessed to provide an insight into the complex interrelationships between the emissions and meteorological conditions which determine the distribution of ground level concentrations.