Calculation of long term averaged ground level ozone concentrations

Seasonal averaged ground level concentrations for O₃ have been calculated for The Netherlands by means of a two-layer Lagrangian long-range transport (LRT) model. The model includes emissions, nonlinear atmospheric chemistry, dry deposition, exchange between boundary layer (BL) and free troposphere (FT) and fumigation between a mixed layer and an aged smog layer. Concentrations of primary and secondary pollutants in the FT are obtained from a two-dimensional global model developed by Isaksen.In the reference calculation the modelled concentrations of Ox (sum of O₃ and NO₂) and O₃ are in fair agreement with measurements. The NO_x (sum of NO and NO₂) and NO₂ concentrations are under-estimated by the model but there is a good temporal correlation between calculated and measured concentrations. Validation of other components involved in the chemical scheme is hardly possible due to the paucity of measured data. It can only be stated that the results presented in this paper are not in disagreement with measured or modelled data presented in the literature.In a number of sensitivity runs the influence of European anthropogenic emissions of NO_x and volatile organic compounds (VOC) has been investigated. The calculations indicate that the influence of European emissions on the growing season, daytime averaged (May–September, 10–17 h) O₃ concentrations in The Netherlands is small. For European reductions in the order of tens of per cents a VOC emission reduction is more effective than a NO_x emission reduction in lowering the O₃ concentrations. For strong reductions (about 70%) VOC and NO_x are equally effective. The effects of the modelled underprediction of NO_x concentrations on the production of O₃ on a European scale are probably small. On a local scale the effects are more pronounced due to the NO/O₃ titration (photostationary equilibrium). Therefore, an empirical correction is applied on the modelled O₃ concentrations. After this correction, it is shown that daytime O₃ levels during the growing season increase when European NO_x emissions are reduced (2.0–7.7.% increase at 50% NO_x emission reduction). A reduction in VOC emission leads to decreasing O₃ levels (9% reduction for 40% VOC emission reduction, 16% reduction for 70% VOC emission reduction). For a combined reduction of both VOC and NO_x slightly decreasing ground level O₃ concentrations are expected.     

广州近地面臭氧浓度特征及气象影响分析

利用2015年广州市近地面逐时臭氧(O_3)观测资料及气象数据,分析了广州地区近地面的O_3浓度时空分布特征及其与气象因子的关系.结果表明:广州地区城郊的O_3浓度高于中心城区;广州地区近地面的O_3浓度超标时间主要出现在4—9月,8月O_3浓度最高,3月O_3浓度最低;O_3浓度日变化呈现"单峰型"分布,早上7:00—8:00出现最低值,15:00达到峰值;O_3浓度与气温呈正相关,当气温高于30℃时,O_3浓度随温度升高增加明显;与相对湿度呈负相关,当相对湿度大于60%时,O_3浓度显著降低;当气压小于1010 hpa时,与气压呈负相关,当气压大于1010 hpa时,与气压呈正相关;当风力为2~3级吹西北偏西至西南偏西风区间时,O_3浓度最高,说明广州偏西部可能存在O_3污染源区;O_3浓度在晴天最高,其次是少云和多云天气,最低是在雨天.总体而言,气温高、日照长、辐射强、气压低、湿度小及2~3级的风力是广州地区近地面产生高浓度O_3的主要气象因素.当广州O_3浓度出现超标时,气温变化范围为25.9~37.4℃,相对湿度变化范围为29%~83%,气压变化范围为989.4~1009.1 h Pa,风速变化范围为0.7~5.8 m·s~(-1),紫外辐射强度日最大1 h均值最小为32.6 W·m~(-2),10:00—14:00均值最小为27.3 W·m~(-2).     

The European Union Solidarity Fund

This paper examines the legitimacy, viability and efficiency of the European Union Solidarity Fund by asking whether the Fund meets its stated purpose of providing solidarity within the EU, whether it is sufficiently capitalized and if it promotes disaster risk reduction in Europe. In examining these questions, we make use of ADAM models of disaster risks throughout Europe. We conclude that the Solidarity Fund falls short on all three counts, and we suggest possible alternatives. Most far-reaching, we explore whether the EUSF could support insurance systems in Europe by, among other possible activities, capitalizing national public-private insurance programs and providing support for government risk transfer. This would leverage the Fund’s capital and would overcome barriers to the provision of private and public sector insurance in uncertain catastrophe markets. It would also make insurance more affordable to Europe’s most vulnerable communities. Finally, it would reduce the disincentives for risk reduction inherent in post-disaster assistance.     

Financial adaptation to disaster risk in the European Union

Increasing losses from weather related extreme events coupled with limited coping capacity suggest a need for strong adaptation commitments, of which public sector responses to adjustments to actual and expected climate stimuli are key. The European Commission has started to address this need in the emerging European Union (EU) climate adaptation strategy; yet, a specific rationale for adaptation interventions has not clearly been identified, and the economic case for adaptation to extremes remains vague. Basing the diagnosis on economic welfare theory and an empirical analysis of the current EU and member states’ roles in managing disaster risk, we discuss how and where the public sector may intervene for managing climate variability and change. We restrict our analysis to financial disaster management, a domain of adaptation intervention, which is of key concern for the EU adaptation strategy. We analyse three areas of public sector interventions, supporting national insurance systems, providing compensation to the affected post event as well as intergovernmental loss sharing through the EU solidarity fund, according to the three government functions of allocation, distribution, and stabilization suggested by welfare theory, and suggest room for improvement.     

Trees as carbon sinks and sources in the European Union

The carbon (C) sinks and sources of trees that may be accounted for under Article 3.3 of the Kyoto Protocol during the first commitment period from 2008 to 2012 were estimated for the countries of the European Union (EU) based on existing forest inventory data. Two sets of definitions for the accounted activities, afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, were applied. Applying the definitions by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the trees were estimated to be a C source in eight and a C sink in seven countries, and in the whole EU a C source of 5.4 Tg year⁻¹. Applying the definitions by the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC), the trees were estimated to be a C source in three and a C sink in 12 countries, and in the whole EU a C sink of 0.1 Tg year⁻¹. These estimates are small compared with the C sink of trees in all EU forests, 63 Tg year⁻¹, the anthropogenic CO₂ emissions of the EU, 880 Tg C year⁻¹, and the reduction target of the CO₂ emissions, 8%. In individual countries, the estimated C sink of the trees accounted for under Article 3.3 was at largest 8% and the C source 12% compared with the CO₂ emissions.     

Prioritisation of existing biocidal active substances in the European Union

This article describes the priority setting process in the 10-year review programme for the systematic examination of all existing active biocidal substances as foreseen in Article 16(2) of the European Commission Biocidal Products Directive (BPD). In the first phase of this programme, all existing biocidal substances were identified or notified. For the evaluation in the second phase, the notified substances will be grouped in four priority lists according to the product types (PTs) for which they were notified. The prioritisation principles were the availability of test guidance for efficacy testing, overlap with other review programmes and overlap between the substances in different product types. The details of these principles are explained in this article.     

欧盟的机动车环保法规(续)

70/157/EEC是控制车辆噪声的第一个指令,之后又经过了多次修订。轿车噪声标准已从70年代的84分贝降至目前的74分贝。在74分贝时,发动机噪声和轮胎噪声相当,     

欧盟的机动车环保法规

作者简要介绍了欧盟的组织机构，法律渊源和立法程序，对欧盟不同时期制定的机动车环保指令排放限值以及实施这些指令的车型核准制度做了详尽描述，本文还介绍了欧盟油品质量要求的发展沿革，统一的油品指令，分析了《世界燃油规范》的性质和作用。     

Characteristics of urban ozone level in Hong Kong

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Studying high ozone concentrations by using the Danish Eulerian model

The long-range transport of air pollutants (LRTAP) over Europe is studied by a mathematical model based on a system of partial differential equations (PDEs). The number of PDEs is equal to the number of species studied and the model contains 35 species at present. Among the species are NO, NO₂, NO₃⁻, HNO₃, NH₃, NH₄⁺, O₃, PAN, SO₂, SO₄²⁻ and may hydrocarbons. Most of the 70 chemical reactions involved in the model are nonlinear (including here many photochemical reactions).The model requires large sets of input data. Emissions of SO₂, NO_x, NH₃ and both natural and anthropogenic volatile organic compounds (VOC) are needed in the model. The meteorological data consist of fields of wind velocities, precipitation, surface temperatures, temperatures of the boundary layer, relative humidities and cloud cover, which are read in the beginning of every 6-h interval. Both daytime and nighttime mixing heights are used in the model.Many of the species in the model vary on a diurnal basis. An investigation of the main mechanisms that determine the diurnal variation of the ozone concentrations is performed. One of the important conditions that is necessary if one wants to represent correctly the diurnal variations of the concentrations is to have access to meteorological data that vary diurnally. This is especially true for the temperature and the mixing height.The use of modern numerical algorithms (which are combined with vectorization of the most time-consuming numerical procedures) allows one to perform long-term runs with the model on several high-speed computers. Results obtained in runs with meteorological data for July 1985 and August–October 1989 are discussed. The computed concentrations and depositions are compared with measurements taken at stations located in different European countries. The agreement between calculated concentrations and measurements is reasonably good.Results obtained with several scenarios, in which the NO_x emission and/or the anthropogenic VOC emissions are varied, are presented. Several main conclusions are drawn by studying the results obtained during the comparisons. Some plans for future development of the models are discussed.     

欧盟水环境标准体系

分析了欧盟水环境标准体系的发展变革,概述了其中的标准及政策,阐述了欧盟环境标准的直接适应效力、优先于成员国法的效力和从属原则等法律特征,归纳了欧盟环境标准指令在各成员国内的实施要求和欧盟水环境标准的特点,并对中国水环境标准的制定与实施提出了建议.      

森林屯欧盟资源网络

森林与欧盟资源网络(FERN) 成立于1995年,是一个以跟进欧盟森林政策信息以及与森林保护相关的NGO 活动的欧洲非政府组织.FREN的主要工作围绕森林以及与森林相关的人权事务,例如森林贸易、森林投资或气候变化问题.在以往的工作中,FERN与许多国际性的社会团体或环保组织建立了密切的联系,形成了广阔的关系网."FERN"不仅代表其英文名称的缩写,也是英文"蕨类植物"的意思,而蕨类植物是少数几种能在任何森林中都能够顽强生长的植物.     

2016年中国城市臭氧浓度的时空变化规律

随着城市化进程的加快和机动车保有量的急剧增加,导致我国很多地区臭氧（O₃）前体物（挥发性有机物和氮氧化物）排放量显著增加,臭氧污染现象日益突出.臭氧污染对人体健康、植被生长、生态环境等具有重要影响,已成为学术界研究的热点.为揭示全国尺度近地面臭氧的时空变化规律,本文基于2016年中国364个城市的监测数据分析了中国城市O₃浓度的时空变化特征,并采用Global Moran''s I和Getis-Ord G_i^*指数,揭示了2016年中国城市O₃污染的空间集聚和冷热点区域的时空特征.结果表明,在全国尺度上,2016年中国城市年均O₃浓度为100.2 μg·m^-3,北方城市和南方城市O₃浓度分别具有显著的倒"V"和"M"型月变化规律,且呈现夏季高、春秋季居中、冬季最低的特征;中国城市O₃浓度具有显著的空间分异规律,中部和东部是O₃污染的高发区,西部地区和黑龙江省的O₃污染处于较低水平;中国城市O₃浓度具有显著的集聚性特征,且呈现1-5月由南向北而6-12月由北向南扩展的年周期循环特征,热点地区主要集中在华北、华中和华东地区.     

欧盟环境政策实施体系研究

在1992年联合国环境与发展大会提出了环境的可持续发展战略后，环境问题越来越引起世界各国的广泛关注。欧盟作为一区域政府组织一直走在世界环境保护淹流的前列，本文系统论述了欧盟环境政策的演变，实施手段以及欧盟环境法律与各成员国环境法律之间的协调原则；在此基础上总结出欧盟共同环境政策的实施体系，并予以分析评价。     

Sensitivity of future ozone concentrations in the northeast USA to regional climate change

An air quality modeling system was used to simulate the effects on ozone concentration in the northeast USA from climate changes projected through the end of the twenty-first century by the National Center for Atmospheric Research’s (NCAR’s) parallel climate model, a fully coupled general circulation model, under a higher and a lower scenario of future global changes in concentrations of radiatively active constituents. The air quality calculations were done with both a global chemistry-transport model and a regional air quality model focused on the northeast USA. The air quality simulations assumed no changes in regional anthropogenic emissions of the chemical species primarily involved in the chemical reactions of ozone creation and destruction, but only accounted for changes in the climate. Together, these idealized global and regional model simulations provide insights into the contribution of possible future climate changes on ozone. Over the coming century, summer climate is projected to be warmer and less cloudy for the northeast USA. These changes are considerably larger under the higher scenario as compared with the lower. Higher temperatures also increase biogenic emissions. Both mean daily and 8-h maximum ozone increase from the combination of three factors that tend to favor higher concentrations: (1) higher temperatures change the rates of reactions and photolysis rates important to the ozone chemistry; (2) lower cloudiness (higher solar radiation) increases the photolysis reaction rates; and (3) higher biogenic emissions increase the concentration of reactive species. Regional model simulations with two cumulus parameterizations produce ozone concentration changes that differ by approximately 10%, indicating that there is considerable uncertainty in the magnitude of changes due to uncertainties in how physical processes should be parameterized in the models. However, the overall effect of the climate changes simulated by these models – in the absence of reductions in regional anthropogenic emissions – would be to increase ozone concentrations.     

美国及欧盟化学物质污染控制法制建设

化学物质对环境的污染和对人类健康的损害是灾难性和不可逆转的。化学物质安全与控制是当前世界各国高度关注的国际性环境问题之一。为了保护人类健康,有效防止环境污染,发达国家对化学物质采取了以预防为主的风险管理措施。20世纪70年代中期,美国、欧共体等发达国家相继制定了加强对化学物质管理的环境法规。     

Common criteria for the redefinition of Intermediate Less Favoured Areas in the European Union

This article defines eight key climate, soil and terrain criteria that have been developed for the future delimitation of the Intermediate Less Favoured Areas (LFAs) support, a measure of the Common Agricultural Policy. The LFA scheme has existed since 1975 and is a broad mechanism for improving the viability of agriculture in areas with natural handicaps. The common criteria have been developed for the European Commission's Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development to satisfy the objectives in the Rural Development Policy 2007–2013 (Axis II), which aim to improve the environment and the countryside by more sustainable land management. The criteria were developed by experts, coordinated by the European Commissions Joint Research Centre, to meet the requirement for a robust and harmonised approach of identifying areas that experience natural constraints to agriculture throughout the EU 27 Member States. The criteria proposed are: temperature, heat stress, drainage, soil texture and stoniness, soil rooting depth, soil chemical properties, soil moisture balance and slope. Each criterion is described and an indicative threshold for assessment of its impact on agriculture is provided. The criteria are currently being tested by the EU Member States for a future possible legislation.     

欧洲环境执政新模式分析

对欧盟新的、开放式的和更具弹性的环境治理模式进行了评估,发现该政策的新模式并不是一剂万能药.在实际的引进与使用过程中,存在很多障碍,这些障碍主要与机构和文化因素有关.对政策制定或(和)执行所做的任何创新都必须从现有的机构设置和旧有的工作常规起步.证明机构路径依循的影响取决于具体事件和国家.因此,即使对于相同的一件事,在不同的政治系统中影响也可能不同.同一项政策在某个国家可能成功执行,在另一个国家可能要产生严重的问题.即使是很多基本特征都相似的邻国,也可能会出现这种差异.环境执政新模式,如自愿或协商的协议和其他方式,关注对公共-私营关系的加强,尤其是决策权力从国家中央向执行的分支部门和私营部门的转移.这要求所有有关方面情愿脱离现有的行政路径,从根本上重新分配各自的权力.解决问题的适当形式和成功很大程度上取决于运用新模式的国家的政治和机构背景.一般说来,市场手段要求正常运作的市场经济氛围,而公众参与或公共-私营关系只有可能在国家、企业和公民社会之间有相对公开沟通的背景下才能进展良好.当满足这些基本条件后,根据创新模式的具体特点,还有各种具体的政治和机构因素与其执行有关.