Outdoor 220Rn, 222Rn and terrestrial gamma radiation levels: investigation study in the thorium rich Fen Complex, Norway

The present study was done in the Fen Complex, a Norwegian area rich in naturally occurring radionuclides, especially in thorium ((232)Th). Measurement of radioactivity levels was conducted at the decommissioned iron (Fe) and niobium (Nb) mining sites (TENORM) as well as at the undisturbed wooded sites (NORM), all open for free public access. The soil activity concentrations of (232)Th (3280-8395 Bq kg(-1)) were significantly higher than the world and the Norwegian average values and exceeded the Norwegian screening level (1000 Bq kg(-1)) for radioactive waste, while radium ((226)Ra) was present at slightly elevated levels (89-171 Bq kg(-1)). Terrestrial gamma dose rates were also elevated, ranging 2.6-4.4 μGy h(-1). Based on long-term surveys, the air concentrations of thoron ((220)Rn) and radon ((222)Rn) reached 1786 and 82 Bq m(-3), respectively. Seasonal variation in the outdoor gamma dose rates and Rn concentrations was confirmed. Correlation analyses showed a linear relationship between air radiation levels and the abundance of (232)Th in soil. The annual outdoor effective radiation doses for humans (occupancy 5 h day(-1)) were estimated to be in the range of 3.0-7.7 mSv, comparable or higher than the total average (summarized indoor and outdoor) exposure dose for the Norwegian population (2.9 mSv year(-1)). On the basis of all obtained results, this Norwegian area should be considered as enhanced natural radiation area (ENRA).     

Characteristic Air Temperature Distributions Observed in Summer and Winter in Urban Area in Japan

The air temperature distributions in August (summer) and December (winter) were measured in an approximately 15 × 15-km urban area in Hyogo Prefecture, Japan, in order to study the spatial distribution of the air temperature and to propose effective measures against the heat island phenomenon. The air temperature was measured mainly by using thermometer shelters installed in an elementary school and a junior high school. The characteristic air temperature distribution depended on the season. The air temperature was higher inland than in the coastal region in August but was higher in the coastal region in December. The air temperature index indicated that the area where higher air temperatures would most likely appear was 5 to 10 km inland from the coast in August and around the coast in December. The seasonal air temperature distribution was presumably due to the strength of solar radiation and anthropogenic exhaust heat.     

Evaluation of Carbon Uptake and Emissions by Forests in Korea During the Last Thirty Years (1973–2002)

The contribution of Korean forests to carbon sequestration for anthropogenic carbon emissions was evaluated. In addition, monitoring of carbon species released from forest fires was conducted. Despite a high carbon uptake by Korean forests, a tremendous increase in fossil fuel burning resulted in a small contribution by forests to carbon removal. The removal efficiency had a 5–31% range with an average of 12% during the period 1973–2002. In 2000, the amount of carbon released from burned trees corresponded to 1.6% of carbon uptake by forests. The distribution of surface CO concentration (ppb) derived from MOPITT (Measurement of Pollution in the Troposphere) showed high CO levels over the East/Japan Sea on April 10, 2000 when the largest forest fires occurred along the east coast of Korea. Trajectory analysis and ground CO measurements also indicated that CO levels over the East/Japan Sea were influenced by forest fires. This study suggests that continuous monitoring of carbon emissions from forest fires is needed for a more reliable estimate of carbon flux in the environment.     

Biomass and number of fish impinged at a nuclear power plant by the Baltic Sea

The main aim of this study was to investigate the number and biomass of impinged fish at Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant in Sweden, located on the coast of the Baltic Sea. Of particular interest was the number of impinged individuals of the critically endangered European eel (Anguilla anguilla) which is regularly caught in the cooling system. Another aim was to determine the comparability of the results from Forsmark and results from impingement studies in other types of waters. Cross-systems studies make it possible to (1) estimate fish loss at plants where fish is not counted, and (2) to predict changes in fish loss from changes in electricity production or cooling water use. In 2010, 31,300,000 fish with a total biomass of 62,600 kg were impinged at Forsmark. In 2011, 27,300,000 fish weighing 38,500 kg were impinged. The maximum peak in total fish number and biomass occurred in spring. The most critical period for herring was in late summer and early autumn. Regarding eel, the largest impingement losses were recorded in November. The number of fish agreed with earlier established quantities of impinged fish in both freshwater and marine ecosystems. The study also estimated that 1,300 critically endangered eels could survive at Forsmark each year if a fish return system would be constructed to allow the passage of fish from the plant back to the Baltic Sea.     

Consumption of methane by soils

Measurements of the methane flux and methane concentration profiles in soil air are presented. The flux of methane from the soil is calculated by two methods: a) Direct by placing a static open chamber at the soil surface. b) Indirect, using the ²²²Rn concentrations profile and the ²²²Rn flux in the soil surface in parallel with the methane concentration (²²²Rn calibrated fluxes). The methane flux has been determined in two kinds of soils (sandy and loamy) in the surroundings of Málaga (SPAIN). The directly measured methane fluxes at all investigated sites is higher than methane fluxes derived from Rn calibrated fluxes. Atmospheric methane is consumed by soils, mean direct flux to the atmosphere were - 0.33 g m^–2yr-1. The direct methane flux is the same within the measuring error in sandy and loamy soils. The influence of the soil parameters on the methane flux indicates that microbial decomposition of methane is primarily controlled by the transport of methane.     

An observational case study of ozone and precursors inflow to South East England during an anticyclone

Summertime photochemical air pollution episodes within the United Kingdom have been proposed via modelling studies to be strongly influenced by regional scale inflow of air from the continental European boundary layer. We present a vertically resolved case study using measurements made from the NERC/Met Office BAe 146 research aircraft on 18th August 2005 over the South East of England and the North Sea during a weak anticyclone centred over Northern Europe. The vertical distribution of ozone, CO, NO(x), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and a wide range of both nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHC) and oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) were determined between 500 ft (approximately 152 m) and 7000 ft (approximately 2134 m) over the East Anglia coastline and 50 km inland. In excess of 80 ppbV ozone was observed within inflowing boundary layer air over the North Sea coast in a broad N-S sloping feature around 60 km wide. The inflowing feature of European origin was also observed further inland within the boundary layer albeit with lower, more variable, ozone mixing ratios. The increased variability in ozone over land was a product of titration by fresh surface emissions of NO via rapid upward transport in thermals, a hypothesis supported by the observed vertical wind speed component. Fast boundary layer mixing over land was further illustrated by a uniform distribution in reactive alkenes. A comparison between aircraft and surface O(3) UK AUN (Automatic Urban Network) measurements showed good agreement with the inland site, Sibton, but marked differences with the coastal monitoring site at Weybourne, potentially due to gradients established by ocean deposition in stably stratified marine air.     

Mussel watch program for organic contaminants along the Korean coast, 2001–2007

The level and extent of organic contaminants along the Korean coast were estimated through the mussel watch program, established in 2001. Mussels and oysters were collected at 20 sites along the Korean coast in 2001 and at 25 sites from 2002 to 2007. The mussel tissues were analyzed for PCBs, organochlorine presticides, PAHs, BTs, and PCDD/Fs. PCBs, PAHs, BTs, and PCDD/Fs were ubiquitous contaminants along the Korean coast, showing mean detection frequencies of more than 95% over 7 years. The concentrations of organic contaminants in mussels along the Korean coast were relatively low or moderate compared with foreign studies. Concentrations of DDTs, PCBs, and PCDD/Fs were below the action or maximum levels for humans established by USFDA and EU. Elevated concentrations above the 85th percentile were found for PCBs, PAHs, BTs, and PCDD/Fs at sites near industrial complexes or big harbors, for HCHs at sites near non-industrial complexes, and for DDTs at sites near both non-industrial and industrial complexes. Using two nonparametric tests to assess temporal trends, the Spearman test revealed that BTs and PCDD/Fs had significant decreasing trends at four sites (Gwangyang Bay, Cheonsu Bay, Garorym Bay, and the Incheon coast) and at six sites (Hupo coast, Guryongpo coast, eastern part of Geojedo, Gunsan coast, Garorym Bay, and Asan Bay), respectively.     

Spatial variation in concentrations and patterns of the PCDD/F and dioxin-like-PCB content in herring from the northern Baltic Sea

The purpose of the current study was to investigate spatial and seasonal variation of dioxin and dioxin-like PCB (dl-PCB) content in herring sampled along the northern Baltic Sea coast and map out risk zones for dioxins and dl-PCBs. We further aimed to investigate relationships between congener distribution (pattern) and sampling location and season. The results showed that there were distinct geographical differences in concentrations of dioxins, dibenzofurans and dl-PCBs along the Swedish coast, from the Bothnian Bay to north Baltic Proper, with the highest levels detected in the southern Bothnian Sea. The majority of the locations showed concentrations above the prescribed maximum for dioxin residues (4 TEQ pg g(-1) wet weight [w.w.]). If all the edible parts of the fish (muscle, subcutaneous fat and skin) are considered, the estimated concentrations exceeded the prescribed maximum level in the whole study area for herring collected during spring-summer. Concentrations in herring caught during spring-summer compared to concentrations in herring sampled in the autumn indicated seasonal variation. The pattern analysis showed a variation in relative congener concentration at the different sampling locations (spring-summer). Pattern differences were also noticed between seasons.     

Bioaccumulation of Toxic Organic Compounds and Their Isomers into the Organism of Seals in West-Estonian Archipelago Biosphere Reserve

The Estonian coastal waters serve as the south-eastern boundary of the regular distribution of the grey (Halichoerus grypus and ringed Phoca hispida) seal in the Baltic Sea. During the annual molt period in May–June (in the Estonian coastal waters), the stock size is estimated to be 1200–1500 grey seal individuals – that is, roughly 25% of the whole Baltic population. If we compare the chlororganic contents of seals in different areas the Baltic Sea, we can see that the northern part of the Gulf of Riga and Väinameri Sea is the reference area of the Baltic Sea.     

Comparison of the changes in temperatures among rural, urban and metropolitan areas around the Inland Sea in Japan

We investigated the changes in temperatures in Takamatsu, Tadotsu and Osaka areas in Japan. Data of temperatures in Takamatsu (urban area: 1942-2009), Tadotsu (rural area: 1893-2009) and Osaka (metropolitan area: 1883-2009) areas around the Inland Sea in Japan was obtained from Japan Meteorological Agency. The changes in temperatures in three areas in Japan were analyzed and compared. By using data from 1942 to 2009, various parameters of temperatures were significantly correlated with years. The changes in mean temperature in August and in a year in Takamatsu area for 50 years were highest (August: 1.6°C, Year: 1.8°C) among three areas. In addition, correlation coefficient rate between years and the number of days over the level of 34°C in August in Takamatsu area was highest (r = 0.567, p < 0.0001). Parameters of temperatures were gradually increased with years in all three areas. The heat island effect in Takamatsu area was similar to Osaka area in Japan.     

Quantitative analysis of shoreline changes at the Mediterranean Coast in Turkey

This research is focused on the coastline evolution monitoring and its potential change estimation by remote sensing techniques using multi-temporal Landsat images at the southeast coasts of the Mediterranean Sea in Turkey. The study area includes the coastal zone located in the Cukurova Delta coasts. The Cukurova Delta has accreted toward the Mediterranean Sea as a result of sediment discharge and transport from Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers. These processes have caused the morphological changes (accretion or erosion) of coastline along some parts of the southeast coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. In this study, coastline changes were researched by using radiometrically and geometrically corrected multi-temporal and multi-spectral data from Landsat Multispectral Scanner dated 1972, Thematic Mapper dated 1987, and Enhanced Thematic Mapper dated 2002. In the image processing steps, mosaicing, subset, Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique classification, band ratioing (B5/B2), edge detection, and overlay techniques were used to carry out coastline extraction and the Digital Shoreline Analysis System was used to calculate rate of coastline changes. As a result of the analysis, in some parts of the research area, remarkable coastline changes (more than 2,900 m withdrawal and ??24.50 m/year erosion) were observed for a 30–year period.     

Evaluating the condition of a mangrove forest of the Mexican Pacific based on an estimated leaf area index mapping approach

Given the alarming global rates of mangrove forest loss it is important that resource managers have access to updated information regarding both the extent and condition of their mangrove forests. Mexican mangroves in particular have been identified as experiencing an exceptional high annual rate of loss. However, conflicting studies, using remote sensing techniques, of the current state of many of these forests may be hindering all efforts to conserve and manage what remains. Focusing on one such system, the Teacapán–Agua Brava–Las Haciendas estuarine–mangrove complex of the Mexican Pacific, an attempt was made to develop a rapid method of mapping the current condition of the mangroves based on estimated LAI. Specifically, using an AccuPAR LP-80 Ceptometer, 300 indirect in situ LAI measurements were taken at various sites within the black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) dominated forests of the northern section of this system. From this sample, 225 measurements were then used to develop linear regression models based on their relationship with corresponding values derived from QuickBird very high resolution optical satellite data. Specifically, regression analyses of the in situ LAI with both the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and the simple ration (SR) vegetation index revealed significant positive relationships [LAI versus NDVI (R ² = 0.63); LAI versus SR (R ² = 0.68)]. Moreover, using the remaining sample, further examination of standard errors and of an F test of the residual variances indicated little difference between the two models. Based on the NDVI model, a map of estimated mangrove LAI was then created. Excluding the dead mangrove areas (i.e. LAI = 0), which represented 40% of the total 30.4 km² of mangrove area identified in the scene, a mean estimated LAI value of 2.71 was recorded. By grouping the healthy fringe mangrove with the healthy riverine mangrove and by grouping the dwarf mangrove together with the poor condition mangrove, mean estimated LAI values of 4.66 and 2.39 were calculated, respectively. Given that the former healthy group only represents 8% of the total mangrove area examined, it is concluded that this mangrove system, considered one of the most important of the Pacific coast of the Americas, is currently experiencing a considerable state of degradation. Furthermore, based on the results of this investigation it is suggested that this approach could provide resource managers and scientists alike with a very rapid and effective method for monitoring the state of remaining mangrove forests of the Mexican Pacific and, possibly, other areas of the tropics.     

The epiphytic lichen hypogymnia physodes as a biomonitor of atmospheric nitrogen and sulphur deposition in Norway

Hypogymnia physodes was sampled from 179 sites of Scots pine forests regularly distributed throughout Norway. The purpose was to map the nitrogen and sulphur contents of lichen thalli on a large-scale geographical basis, and to relate these values to differences in atmospheric deposition and climate.The lichen nitrogen and sulphur concentrations showed large differences; the highest concentration values being 4–5 times greater than the lowest. The highest nitrogen and sulphur values occurred along the coast of southern Norway and on some sites in the inland of southern Norway. There was a close correlation between the two elements. The lichen N/S ratio decreased with increasing latitude.The nitrogen and sulphur contents ofHypogymnia physodes were both significantly correlated to estimated atmospheric deposition of these two elements in Norway. The degree of explanation improved when climatic variables such as temperature sum, altitude, annual precipitation and temperature were included. Factors promoting growth, such as high bark pH, mild winters, hot summers, high precipitation, high ammonium deposition and high evapotranspiration, were all associated with lower lichen nitrogen and/or sulphur concentrations. Unfavourable growth conditions, such as at high altitude, was related to higher concentrations than expected from deposition models. This indicates that differences in element concentration between nearby localities might be related to local differences in climate and lichen growth conditions. This should be taken into consideration whenever using lichens for biomonitoring.     

Application of physicochemical data for water-quality assessment of watercourses in the Gdansk Municipality (South Baltic coast)

The paper presents water-quality evaluation based on an 8-year monitoring programme in the Gdansk Municipality region, on the Southern coast of the Baltic Sea. The studies were carried out from 2000 to 2007 by surface water analysis at 15 various sites within eight watercourses. Sampling sites included rather urbanized or developed lands, farming fields and non-polluted city recreational areas such as parks and forests. Most of the watercourses were sampled monthly at two locations, one within the upper course of the watercourse and the other near its mouth. In all samples, eight parameters of water quality were determined: total suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, water temperature, oxygen saturation, 5-day biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, total phosphorus and total nitrogen concentration. Interpretation of the obtained results revealed that examination of those basic physicochemical parameters permits to discriminate initially watercourses with respect to level of water contamination. During the research, a large dataset was obtained and it was described by both basic statistical parameters and chemometric method of cluster analysis. The paper presents relations between analysed parameters and influence of land exploitation mode on water quality and describes variation of the results both in space and time.     

Spatial Extent of Sediment Toxicity in U.S. Estuaries and Marine Bays

Acute, laboratory toxicity tests were performed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on 1543 surficial sediment samples collected during 1991 through 1997 throughout 25 estuaries and marine bays. Selected areas were sampled along the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Pacific coasts. The toxicity of each sample was determined with 10-day amphipod survival tests performed with solid-phase (bulk) sediments. Collectively, the 1543 samples tested through 1997 represented a total area of approximately 7300 km². Toxicity was observed with the amphipod survival tests in samples that represented approximately 6% of the combined area. Using similar tests conducted on samples collected in different, but overlapping, study areas, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimated that approximately 7% of the combined estuarine area sampled was toxic. Generally, toxicity was most severe in northeastern and southwestern estuaries and least prevalent in southeastern and northwestern areas. However, considerable portions of the Pacific coast have not been tested with the same methods. In tests of CYP1A enzyme induction (n=464), samples were toxic that represented about 5% of the combined study areas. Toxicity was much more widespread, however, when the results of two sub-lethal tests were analyzed. Significant results occurred in samples that represented approximately 25% and 39% of the study areas in tests of sea urchin fertilization (n=1309) and microbial bioluminescence (n=1215), respectively.     

Arsenic biomonitoring using a hyperaccumulator fern (Pteris vittata)

Samples of Pteris vittata L. (brake fern or ladder brake) collected in Genova and in areas outside urban centres, have been analysed for arsenic content in order to assess if hyper accumulating plants are suitable for monitoring purposes. Hyper accumulation ability of the Ligurian fern populations was evaluated by analysing specimens grown with hydroponic media added with As(v). Arsenic concentrations in the range 2-310 microg g(-1) dry weight have been measured in samples collected in different sites along the Ligurian coast. Arsenic concentrations in fern fronds correlate with the estimated arsenic emission in the area, verifying the applicability of P. vittata as an arsenic biomonitor.     

Statistical distributions of trace metal concentrations in the northwestern Mediterranean atmospheric aerosol

The concentrations of 11 crustal and anthropogenic trace metals (Li, Al, V, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb) were measured from 2006 to 2008 in the atmospheric aerosol at a northwestern Mediterranean coast (station of Cap Ferrat, situated on the southeastern coast of France). Statistical models (lognormal, Weibull, and gamma) that best represented the trace metal distribution for this environment are described. The lognormal model was selected for the distributions of (in decreasing strength of the fit) Al, Co, Li, Zn, Mn, Cu, Pb, and Cd, i.e., metals that are introduced into the atmospheric aerosol by pulses inducing temporal variability in their concentrations. The gamma model was associated with Fe, i.e., metals that exhibit less inter-annual variability than the former trace metals. The third mode (Weibull) represented the distribution of the concentrations of V and Ni. The statistical approach presented in this study contributed to better define and constrain the distribution of the 11 trace metals of the atmospheric aerosol from the northwestern Mediterranean coast. In a close future, knowledge of these statistical distributions will allow using convolution models to separate their natural and anthropogenic contributions, therefore increasing our ability to study anthropogenic emissions of trace metals and their impact on the environment.     

Vulnerability of the Nile Delta coastal areas to inundation by sea level rise

Sea level changes are typically caused by several natural phenomena, including ocean thermal expansion, glacial melt from Greenland and Antarctica. Global average sea level is expected to rise, through the twenty-first century, according to the IPCC projections by between 0.18 and 0.59 cm. Such a rise in sea level will significantly impact coastal area of the Nile Delta, consisting generally of lowland and is densely populated areas and accommodates significant proportion of Egypt’s economic activities and built-up areas. The Nile Delta has been examined in several previous studies, which worked under various hypothetical sea level rise (SLR) scenarios and provided different estimates of areas susceptible to inundation due to SLR. The paper intends, in this respect, to identify areas, as well as land use/land cover, susceptible to inundation by SLR based upon most recent scenarios of SLR, by the year 2100 using GIS. The results indicate that about 22.49, 42.18, and 49.22 % of the total area of coastal governorates of the Nile Delta would be susceptible to inundation under different scenarios of SLR. Also, it was found that 15.56 % of the total areas of the Nile Delta that would be vulnerable to inundation due to land subsidence only, even in the absence of any rise in sea level. Moreover, it was found that a considerable proportion of these areas (ranging between 32.32 and 53.66 %) are currently either wetland or undeveloped areas. Furthermore, natural and/or man-made structures, such as the banks of the International Coastal Highway, were found to provide unintended protection to some of these areas. This suggests that the inundation impact of SLR on the Nile Delta is less than previously reported.     

Shoreline change and potential sea level rise impacts in a climate hazardous location in southeast coast of India

Climate change impact on the environment makes the coastal areas vulnerable and demands the evaluation of such susceptibility. Historical changes in the shoreline positions and inundation based on projected sea-level scenarios of 0.5 and 1 m were assessed for Nagapattinam District, a low-lying coastal area in the southeast coast of India, using high-resolution Shuttle Radar Topography Mission data; multi-dated Landsat satellite images of 1978, 1991, 2003, and 2015; and census data of 2011. Image processing, geographical information system, and digital shoreline analysis system methods were used in the study. The shoreline variation indicated that erosion rate varied at different time scales. The end point rate indicated the highest mean erosion of ??3.12 m/year, occurred in 73% of coast between 1978 and 1991. Weighted linear regression analysis revealed that the coast length of 83% was under erosion at a mean rate of ??2.11 m/year from 1978 to 2015. Sea level rise (SLR) impact indicated that the coastal area of about 14,122 ha from 225 villages and 31,318 ha from 272 villages would be permanently inundated for the SLR of 0.5 and 1 m, respectively, which includes agriculture, mangroves, wetlands, aquaculture, and forest lands. The loss of coastal wetlands and its associated productivity will severely threaten more than half the coastal population. Adaptation measures in people participatory mode, integrated into coastal zone management with a focus on sub-regional coastal activities, are needed to respond to the consequences of climate change.