Evaluation and assessment of the efficacy of an abatement strategy in a former lead smelter community,Boolaroo, Australia

This study examines the recent soil Lead Abatement Strategy (LAS) in Boolaroo, New South Wales, Australia, that was designed to “achieve a reduction in human exposure to lead dust contamination in surface soils”. The abatement programme addressed legacy contamination of residential areas following closure of lead smelting operations in 2003 at the Pasminco Cockle Creek Smelter (PCCS). The principal objective of the LAS was to “cap and cover” lead-contaminated soils within the urban environment surrounding the PCCS. Soil lead concentrations of 2500–5000 mg/kg were scheduled for removal and replacement, while concentrations between 1500 and 2500 mg/kg were replaced only under limited circumstances. To date, there has been no industry, government or independent assessment of the clean-up programme that involved >2000 homes in the township of Boolaroo. Thus, by measuring post-abatement soil lead concentrations in Boolaroo, this study addresses this knowledge gap and evaluates the effectiveness of the LAS for reducing the potential for lead exposure. Soil lead concentrations above the Australian residential soil health investigation level value for residential soils (300 mg/kg) were identified at all but one of the residential properties examined (n = 19). Vacuum dust samples (n = 17) from the same homes had a mean lead concentration of 495 mg/kg (median 380 mg/kg). Bio-accessibility testing revealed that lead in household vacuum dust was readily accessible (% bio-accessible) (mean = 92 %, median = 90 %), demonstrating that the risk of exposure via this pathway remains. Assessment of a limited number of properties (n = 8) where pre-abatement soil lead levels were available for comparison showed they were not statistically different to post-abatement. Although the LAS did not include treatment of non-residential properties, sampling of community areas including public sports fields, playgrounds and schools (n = 32) was undertaken to determine the contamination legacy in these areas. Elevated mean soil lead concentrations were found across public lands: sports fields = 5130 mg/kg (median = 1275 mg/kg), playgrounds and schools = 812 mg/kg (median = 920 mg/kg) and open space = 778 mg/kg (median = 620 mg/kg). Overall, the study results show that the LAS programme that was dominated by a “cap and cover” approach to address widespread lead contamination was inadequate for mitigating current and future risk of lead exposures.     

The feasibility of processing lead-based paint abatement wastes through primary and secondary lead smelters

This study was undertaken to determine the feasibility of processing soil and lead-based paint (LBP) abatement waste through primary and secondary lead smelting facilities. The main objectives were to determine the compatibility of soil and LBP abatement waste with lead smelting circuits; the costs associated with transporting and processing the abatement waste through a smelter; and a review of major environmental laws or regulations which may impact the lead smelting industry's ability to carry out this process. While not all categories of LBP wastes are suited for reclamation through lead smelters, sufficient classes are to make the effort worthwhile. Specifically, lead paint chips, dusts, heatgun sludge, soils and certain blasting abrasives appear metallurgically compatible with the lead smelting circuits. Additionally, there do not appear to be any current regulatory statutes that forbid the process from being carried out, so long as certain permit modifications are obtained. Finally, the estimated smelting costs seem to compare favourably with current treatment and disposal fees at approved landfills. However, despite the promise of these initial findings, a great deal of work remains to be done if the concept of processing lead paint wastes through lead smelters for reclamation is to become a reality.     

Air lead,blood lead and travel by car

Evidence on the relevance of lead in petrol to lead in blood has come from two main sources. Cross sectional studies of blood lead levels in population samples and in the air to which they are exposed suggest that petrol makes only a very small contribution. However longitudinal studies in the USA in which changes in lead levels in petrol and changes in blood lead have been studied suggest that petrol makes a substantial contribution to blood lead. The possibility that this discrepancy might be explained by the exposure of subjects to very high levels of lead when travelling in motor vehicles is examined, and rejected.     

Responses of marine fouling communities to sewage abatement in Kaneohe Bay,Oahu, Hawaii

The development of marine fouling communities was followed as part of a sewage abatement study in Kaneohe Bay (Oahu, Hawaii). Panels immersed near the outfall during sewage discharge were dominated by dense mats of blue-green algae and diatoms. This mat was significantly lighter at this station when sewage did not flow into the bay, and it never developed on panels within the same sector of the bay but away from the influence of the outfall. Taxonomic diversity, and the frequency of filamentous algae and the serpulidHydroides elegans were reduced near the outfall during discharge. It is suggested that this reduction in diversity and abundance of certain key foulers is due to competitive exclusion by the dense blue-green and diatom mats, and is not a direct effect of the sewage effluent.     

Florida, USA, Port Experience with Marpol Annex V

This study assesses the effectiveness of MARPOL Annex V regulations, hereafter referred to as the Annex, using observations of United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) personnel stationed at major Florida ports. the study was initiated at the request of the 1IOPS Marine Debris Workshop Steering Committee* and was designed to focus on Gulf and Caribbean experiences gained since the Annex became effective.     

Florida,USA, Port Experience with Marpol Annex V

Abstract

This study assesses the effectiveness of MARPOL Annex V regulations, hereafter referred to as the Annex, using observations of United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) personnel stationed at major Florida ports. the study was initiated at the request of the 1IOPS Marine Debris Workshop Steering Committee? and was designed to focus on Gulf and Caribbean experiences gained since the Annex became effective.     

Historical seagrass mapping in Port Phillip Bay,Australia

Seagrass beds are highly productive ecosystems and a decline in this habitat has become a global concern in recent decades. This study mapped seagrass at three sites in Port Phillip Bay between 1939 and 2011 and reviewed possible influences on seagrass cover changes. Historical aerial photographs from multiple sources were digitally scanned and orthorectified. Automated image processing techniques incorporating an unsupervised classification combined with minor editing in a GIS were applied to map seagrass cover and analyse variations in the size and distribution of seagrass beds. Large declines in seagrass cover were observed at all three sites after 1998. In contrast to other world-wide observations, these recent declines were preceded by a period of sustained seagrass expansion between the 1960s and 1990s and lower levels of seagrass cover were observed in the 1930s/40s. The recent and earlier low levels of seagrass cover coincided with extended droughts characterised by large reductions in nutrient inputs to the Bay. However, recent declines were not consistent across the Bay with three other sites remaining relatively stable during this period. The sites with large declines are all subject to longshore drift and changes in nearshore sediment transport driven by variations in weather patterns coinciding with extended periods of drought may be important influences on seagrass cover at these locations.     

Exposure Assessment of Naturally Metal Enriched Topsoils, Port Macquarie, Australia

An exposure assessment was conducted on naturally metal enriched topsoils of the city of Port Macquarie in order to establish whether the soils pose any threat to human health. Surface soils (0–10 cm depth, <2 mm) were investigated for their total, bioavailable and leachable Cr and Ni concentrations. Total metal concentrations ranged from 145 to 4540 mg Cr kg^–1 and 20 to 2030 mg Ni kg^–1, whereas soil extractions revealed low leachable contaminant concentrations (EDTA extraction: <0.1–0.2 mg Cr L^–1 and <0.1–4.7 mg Ni L^–1; acetic acid extraction: <0.1 mg L^–1 Cr and Ni). Thus the bioavailability of Cr and Ni to plants is low, the leaching of metals into ground and surface waters is insignificant and the pathways of these metal pollutants from topsoils into residents are limited to the inadvertent ingestion, inhalation and skin adsorption of soil metals. Simulated gastric experiments, using hydrochloric acid, indicated that less than 0.01% of the total Cr and 0.1–2.4% of the total Ni ingested are soluble and available, for uptake into the human body. Critical receptors, such as small children would have to ingest considerable soil quantities (> 11.8 g per day) over long periods of time to experience an appreciable risk of deleterious effects. Thus, although Cr and Ni are present in high concentrations, the effective uptake of Cr and Ni from soil by the majority of residents is insignificant. The possibility that the Ni enriched topsoil induces allergic contact dermatitis in sensitised individuals remains to be evaluated.     

Introduced and cryptogenic species in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Australia

Port Phillip Bay (PPB) is a large (1,930 km²), temperate embayment in southern Victoria, Australia. Extensive bay-wide surveys of PPB have occurred since 1840. In 1995/1996 the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) Centre for Research on Introduced Marine Pests (CRIMP) undertook an intensive evaluation of the region with the aims of developing a comprehensive species list of native and introduced biota and contrasting previous bay-wide assessments with a current field survey in order to detect new incursions and discern alterations to native communities. Two methods were used to meet these aims: a re-evaluation of regional museum collections and published research in PPB to identify and determine the timing of introductions; and field surveys for benthic (infauna, epifauna and encrusting) organisms between September 1995 to March 1996. One hundred and sixty introduced (99) and cryptogenic (61) species were identified representing over 13% of the recorded species of PPB. As expected, the majority of these are concentrated around the shipping ports of Geelong and Melbourne. Invasions within PPB appear to be increasing, possibly due to an increase in modern shipping traffic and an increase in aquaculture (historically associated with incidental introductions); however the records of extensive biological surveys suggest that this may, in part, be an artefact of sampling effort. In contrast to Northern Hemisphere studies, PPB (and Southern Hemisphere introductions in general) have significantly different suites of successfully invading taxa. PPB is presented as one of the most invaded marine ecosystems in the Southern Hemisphere.Communicated by M.S. Johnson, Crawley     

Predicting future effects from nutrient abatement and climate change on phosphorus concentrations in Lake Bourget, France

Like many temperate European lakes, Lake Bourget (France) has suffered from eutrophication during the second half of the last century. Due to a remarkable restoration program, the lake has been recovering for the past 25 years after a massive decrease in total phosphorus (TP) loading. TP concentrations have decreased from about 100-120 to 20-25 μg/L. Additional efforts are, however, still required to obtain a perennially sustainable good ecological status and model parameterisation of fluxes can assist in predicting future outcomes, especially in the context of global warming. In this paper, a dynamic model (MeroLakeMab) was developed and tested with the purpose to reconstruct the loading history of Lake Bourget and to predict TP concentrations during scenarios of increased temperature, decreased water runoff and decreased P loading. Simulations suggested that the historical TP loading decrease may have been as extensive as 88%. Decreases in water discharge to Lake Bourget at magnitudes forecasted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) would not affect TP concentrations notably, but marked concentration changes could, however, occur if decreases in runoff would have a strong impact on the TP loading. Increasing temperature effects on yearly mean TP concentrations in the water column would be very small compared to effects from changes in the TP loading. Predictions such as these could be instrumental for future successful lake management.     

Contaminated lead environments of man: reviewing the lead isotopic evidence in sediments,peat, and soils for the temporal and spatial patterns of atmospheric lead pollution in Sweden

Clair Patterson and colleagues demonstrated already four decades ago that the lead cycle was greatly altered on a global scale by humans. Moreover, this change occurred long before the implementation of monitoring programs designed to study lead and other trace metals. Patterson and colleagues also developed stable lead isotope analyses as a tool to differentiate between natural and pollution-derived lead. Since then, stable isotope analyses of sediment, peat, herbaria collections, soils, and forest plants have given us new insights into lead biogeochemical cycling in space and time. Three important conclusions from our studies of lead in the Swedish environment conducted over the past 15 years, which are well supported by extensive results from elsewhere in Europe and in North America, are: (1) lead deposition rates at sites removed from major point sources during the twentieth century were about 1,000 times higher than natural background deposition rates a few thousand years ago (~10 mg Pb m^?2 year^?1 vs. 0.01 mg Pb m^?2 year^?1), and even today (~1 mg Pb m^?2 year^?1) are still almost 100 times greater than natural rates. This increase from natural background to maximum fluxes is similar to estimated changes in body burdens of lead from ancient times to the twentieth century. (2) Stable lead isotopes (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratios shown in this paper) are an effective tool to distinguish anthropogenic lead from the natural lead present in sediments, peat, and soils for both the majority of sites receiving diffuse inputs from long range and regional sources and for sites in close proximity to point sources. In sediments >3,500 years and in the parent soil material of the C-horizon, ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratios are higher, 1.3 to >2.0, whereas pollution sources and surface soils and peat have lower ratios that have been in the range 1.14–1.18. (3) Using stable lead isotopes, we have estimated that in southern Sweden the cumulative anthropogenic burden of atmospherically deposited lead is ~2–5 g Pb m^?2 and ~1 g Pb m^?2 in the “pristine” north. Half of this cumulative total was deposited before industrialization. (4) In the vicinity of the Rönnskär smelter in northern Sweden, a major point source during the twentieth century, there is an isotopic pattern that deviates from the general trends elsewhere, reflecting the particular history of ore usage at Rönnskär, which further demonstrates the chronological record of lead loading recorded in peat and in soil mor horizons.     

Temperature,salinity and water-age variations in a tidal creek network,Bushehr Port,Iran

The spatio-temporal variability of temperature and salinity was studied for a creek network and its adjacent coastal waters along the northwestern coast of the Persian Gulf during warm and cold months. Salinity variations and tidal fluctuations were found to be out of phase throughout the creek. Temperature variations at the creek were exhibit a direct correlation with tidal fluctuations during cold months and were inversely related during warm months. The creek water was colder (warmer) than offshore water during the cold (warm) season. The salinity values observed inside this inverse estuary were higher during the warm season than the corresponding values during the cold season due to a change in evaporation rates; while the open water salinity had an opposite pattern. Using salinity as a tracer, the water-age (WA) was calculated, which shows almost linear increase from the mouth to the head. The maximum WA increases from ~10 days in winter to ~30 days in summer due to the corresponding increase in longitudinal salinity gradient. Based on the calculated non-dimensional Peclet number, the diffusion process is more rapid than the advection process in this water body, especially during the cold season.     

Evolution trend analysis of Nearshore seabed in Yangshan Deep-water Port,China

Yangshan Deep-water Port, the largest deep-water port in China, is located in the sea area of the Qiqu Archipelago adjacent to Hangzhou Bay. It goes deep into the ocean and far from the continent, and plays a key role in the economy and shipping of China. The evolution and stability of the seabed in the Yangshan Deep-water Port have potential influences on the security of port engineering. Based on GIS spatial analysis technology and MATLAB numerical analysis software, this study predicted the short-term evolution trend of the Yangshan Port frontier seabed terrain through the establishment of a modified power function model. The research included: (1) a systematic analysis of the characteristics of the terrain evolution before (1960–1997) and after (1998–2008) the construction of Yangshan Port by using terrain data from the study area; (2) based on the historical erosion and deposition characteristics of Yangshan Port, an improved power function model was established and the reliability of the model was validated to simulate the study area’s frontier seabed evolution trend in 2015. The results show that: (1) before the construction of Yangshan Port, the seabed in the study area had a narrower variation in erosion and deposition, with the ratio of erosion and deposition of the stable region, erosion area and deposition area being 53.7 %, 18.3 % and 28.0 % respectively, overall the area showed a relatively stable erosion and deposition character; (2) after the construction of the port, the erosion and deposition variation ranges of the seabed were sharply amplified, obviously due to man-made interference being stronger than natural evolution. The stable region of erosion and deposition was only 22.7 %, erosion area was 53.8 %, and the deposition area was 23.4 %, which showed an erosion intensity that was larger than the deposition intensity; (3) the established improved power function model can be used in the short-term prediction of the Yangshan Port frontier seabed evolution trend with high prediction accuracy. The results can aid in decision making with regard to coastal protection and prospective construction schemes around Yangshan Port.     

东方香蒲(Typha orientalis Presl)对铅的富集特征及其EDTA效应分析

通过野外调查和水培试验，研究了生长在永州铅锌铜尾矿上的优势植物东方香蒲（Typha orientalis Presl）对铅的富集特征及EDTA对其吸收和运输铅的影响。野外调查表明，东方香蒲对铅有很强的富集作用，其地上部分铅平均质量分数为619mg／kg，地下部分铅平均质量分数为1233mg／kg。营养液培养试验进一步证实了它的强富集能力，其地上和地下部分的铅质量分数都远远超过了超富集定义的参考值（1000mg／kg）。分析结果表明，东方香蒲是一种新的铅富集型植物，EDTA的加入不仅增加了植株对铅的吸收量，而且增大了铅在植株体内的转运系数。同时，铅对植株的毒害症状也得到缓解。     

Factors controlling lead bioavailability in the Butte mining district,Montana, USA

Microprobe analyses of 38 soil and 5 mine-waste samples from Butte, Montana, demonstrated that the samples contain predominantly sulphide/sulphate and oxide/phosphates of lead (Pb)-bearing phases associated with mine waste. The sulphide/sulphate assemblage consists primarily of galena altering to anglesite and plumbojarosite, with secondary jarosite precipitating and rinding the Pb-bearing minerals. In addition, galena was encapsulated within pyrite or quartz grains. The oxide/phosphate assemblage consists of pH-neutral soils in which a plausible paragenetic sequence of PbO to Pb phosphates, PbMnO, or PbFeO is proposed, dependent on the activity of P, Mn, Fe, and Cl in the soil. In addition, Pb-bearing grains are occasionally armoured by the presence of a 1- to 3-(m rind of authigenic silicate. The low solubility of the Pb-bearing minerals resulting from encapsulation in non-Pb-bearing reaction rinds may provide an explanation for the limited Pb bioavailability observed when Butte soils were fed to rats (Freemanet al., 1992). Further evidence of the lack of absorption of lead from these soils is provided by the results of a blood-Pb study indicating very low blood-Pb levels in Butte children. The lower bioavailability of Pb from mining sites, compared to smelting and urban environments, is also due to kinetic limitations that control dissolution rates of Pb-bearing solids relative to the residence time of soil in the gastrointestinal (Gl) tract. When the test soil was fed to New Zealand White rabbits, only 9% of the total Pb was solubilised in the stomach, and therefore available for absorption. Anin vitro assay, developed to estimate maximum available Pb from soil, demonstrates that ingestion of mine-waste-bearing soil results in limited Pb dissolution, and produces results similar to thein vivo testing.     

Contamination status of arsenic,lead, and cadmium of different wetland waters

The present investigation was conducted to determine the contamination status of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) in the wetland waters of Bhaluka in Bangladesh. Water samples were collected from 15 selected wetlands of Bhaluka region and analyzed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Estimated results of three metals detected were As (7–80?µg?L^?1), Pb (0–86?µg?L^?1) and Cd (0–70?µg?L^?1) in water samples in all wetlands. The level of As in all investigated wetlands (93%) was higher than that of WHO recommended permissible limit of drinking water except Alanga wetland. However, As levels were higher than that recommended for livestock water quality levels. Eighty-seven percent of the investigated wetlands showed lower content of Pb than WHO recommended permissible limit of drinking water, but two wetland waters (Dohuria-1 and Chowdhuri) were polluted with higher Pb levels. Sixty-seven percent of the investigated wetlands displayed higher levels of Cd than WHO recommended permissible limit in drinking water. Dissolved organic material showed no significant difference among the 15 investigated wetlands water, but total dissolved solids was significantly greater. The condition of the water of all wetlands was basic pH. All water samples were applied to linear regression equation and correlation coefficients where values showed no significant differences. Data demonstrate that the estimated high metal concentrations of these ponds may contribute to bioaccumulation within plants, food grains and shrimp.     

Seasonal variation in paediatric blood lead levels in Syracuse,NY, USA

Venous blood lead values for 2,633 children aged 0–4 years in Syracuse, New York, collected between 1 April 1992 and 31 March 1993 were summarised by census tract for study of geographic variability. A demographic exposure model is presented showing housing stock and SES (socioeconomic status) parameters as the most significant predictor variables. A seasonal trend in blood lead levels was observed with late summer values about 40% higher than late winter values for census tracts with the highest geometric mean PbB levels. Seasonal variation is compared with a biokinetic uptake model to examine hypotheses about temporal variations in soil and dust lead exposure patterns.     

The short and long run effects of tied foreign aid on pollution abatement, pollution and employment: A pilot model

There exists in the literature a presumption that tied foreign aid can be used effectively to reduce cross-border pollution. Focusing, in contrast to the received literature, on the interaction between the public and private provisions of pollution abatement in the recipient country, we question the effectiveness of tied foreign aid in reducing pollution. In this context, we obtain many novel and policy relevant insights. Allowing for changes in labour employment and distinguishing between short and long run effects, tied foreign aid is shown to crowd out the private provision for pollution abatement in the short run. In the long run, tied foreign aid raises employment and therefore may be desirable for the recipient but undesirable for the donor country because it also raises pollution. The results change drastically if only the government provides pollution abatement.     

Determination of traces of fluorine,chlorine, bromine,cadmium and lead in plastic materials

This paper describes the quantitative determination of F, Cl, Br, Cd and Pb in plastic materials. The concentration of the elements Cl, Br, Cd and Pb is first semiquantitatively measured by X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) directly in the solid sample with a detection limit of approximately 10 μg/g. Afterwards, F and any of the other elements which exceed the limit values for materials which are disposable without special precautions are measured after the digestion of the material. The samples are digested either under pressure in an oxygen atmosphere for F, Cl and Br or under pressure with nitric acid for Cd and Pb. The digestion converts the halides to the anions which are measured potentiometrically (F^‐, Br^‐) or with ion chromatography (Cl^‐). Cd and Pb are measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GF‐AAS). The determination limits achieved are 20 μg/g for F and Br, 250 μg/g for Cl, 0.01 μg/g for Cd and 0.2 μg/g for Pb, all below the limit values set by current regulations in Switzerland.     

Preliminary assessment of surface soil lead concentrations in Melbourne,Australia

Urban soils in many cities have been found to be contaminated with lead from past usage of leaded petrol, deteriorating lead-based exterior paints and industrial sources. Currently, the spatial distribution of soil lead concentrations in the Melbourne metropolitan area is unknown. The objective of this study was to perform a preliminary assessment of the spatial distributions of the surface soil lead (Pb) concentrations in the Melbourne metropolitan area, Australia. Fifty-eight surface soil samples were collected at a depth of 0–2 cm along three linear transects oriented across the Melbourne metropolitan area. Surface soil samples were also collected at a higher density in five Melbourne suburbs. Soil cores (0–50 cm) were collected in four locations, soil transects were collected at intervals with distance away from the roadway (0–50 m) in two inner city parks, and one control soil sample was collected in a rural setting. The median soil Pb concentration of the soil transect samples was 173 mg/kg (range 32–710 mg/kg), and the median soil Pb concentration of the five suburbs was 69 mg/kg (range 9–1750 mg/kg). The suburb of Footscray had the highest soil Pb concentration with a median soil Pb concentration of 192 mg/kg (range 40–1750 mg/kg). Soil Pb concentrations were generally higher nearest the centre of the Melbourne metropolitan area and in the west of Melbourne and lower in the outer suburbs to the east and north of the city centre. Soil Pb concentrations decreased with distance from roadways in the two transects taken from urban parks, and soil lead decreased with depth in the four soil cores. The soil Pb concentrations in the Melbourne metropolitan area appear to be lower than soil lead concentrations observed in inner city areas of Sydney New South Wales (NSW) and Newcastle NSW. The spatial extent of the soil Pb hazard remains undefined in portions of the Melbourne metropolitan area.