WATER QUALITY FROM TWO SMALL FORESTED WATERSHEDS IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS1

Two intermittent streams on oak-hickory watersheds in southern Illinois were gaged with a V-notched weir and sampled with an automatic water sampler. For three years data were collected on flow volume and water quality. Flow volumes show large variations between years and watersheds. Samples were analyzed for Na⁺, K⁺, Ca⁺⁺, Mg⁺⁺, P, and NO^-₃. Water quality was consistently high, although there were significant differences between watersheds. A baseline for water quality has been established for comparison after one of the watersheds is clearcut at a later date.     

EFFECTS OF ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE ON GROUND WATER QUALITY AND AQUIFER STORAGE RECOVERY1

ABSTRACT: Ground water nitrate contamination and water level decline are common concern in Nebraska. Effects of artificial recharge on ground water quality and aquifer storage recovery (ASR) were studied with spreading basins constructed in the highly agricultural region of the Central Platte, Nebraska. A total of 1.10 million m³ of Platte River water recharged the aquifer through 5000 m² of the recharge basins during 1992, 1993, and 1994. This is equivalent to the quantity needed to completely displace the ground water beneath 34 ha of the local primary aquifer with 13 m thickness and 0.25 porosity. Successful NO₃-N remediation was documented beneath and downgradient of the recharge basins, where NO₃-N declined from 20 to 2 mg L^-1. Ground water atrazine concentrations at the site decreased from 2 to 0.2 mg L^-1 due to recharge. Both NO₃-N and atrazine contamination dramatically improved from concentrations exceeding the maximum contaminant levels to those of drinking water quality. The water table at the site rose rapidly in response to recharge during the early stage then leveled off as infiltration rates declined. At the end of the 1992 recharge season, the water table 12 m downgradient from the basins was elevated 1.36 m above the preproject level; however, at the end of the 1993 recharge season, any increase in the water table from artificial recharge was masked by extremely slow infiltration rates and heavy recharge from precipitation from the wettest growing season in over 100 years. The water table rose 1.37 m during the 1994 recharge season. Resultant ground water quality and ASR improvement from the artificial recharge were measured at 1000 m downgradient and 600 m upgradient from the recharge basins. Constant infiltration rates were not sustained in any of the three years, and rates always decreased with time presumably because of clogging. Scraping the basin floor increased infiltration rates. Using a pulsed recharge to create dry and wet cycles and maintaining low standing water heads in the basins appeared to reduce microbial growth, and therefore enhanced infiltration.     

EFFECT OF SULFOMETURON METHYL ON GROUND WATER AND STREAM QUALITY IN COASTAL PLAIN FOREST WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: Sulfometuron methyl [methyl 2-[[[[4,6-dimethly 2-(pyrimidinyl) a-mino] carbony l]amino] sulfonyl] benzoate] was applied by a ground sprayer at a maximum labeled rate of 0.42 kg ha^-1 a.i. to a 4 ha Coastal Plain flatwoods watershed as site preparation for tree planting. Herbicide residues were detected in Streamflow for only seven days after treatment and did not exceed 7 mg m^-3. Sulfometuron methyl was not detected in any stormflow and was not found in any sediment (both bedload and suspended). Sampling of a shallow ground water aquifer, > 1.5 m below ground surface, did not detect any sulfometuron methyl residues for 203 days after herbicide application. Lack of herbicide residue movement was attributed to low application rates, rapid hydrolysis in acidic soils and water and dilution in streamflow.     

WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION — SOUTH FORK OF LONG ISLAND,NEW YORK1

ABSTRACT: The South Fork of Long Island, New York is an area which relies entirely on ground water for water supply. Most of the water which is pumped is artifically recharged, without treatment, via cesspools. The natural quality of the ground water is very high. Some areas show increasing nitrate in the ground water. This comes from both cesspools and agricultural fertilizer. Saline water intrusion is a potential problem in coastal areas. High ammonia in surface ponds may result in eutrophication.     

EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLIES FROM GROUND WATER IN HUMID REGIONS1

ABSTRACT: This paper focuses on the development and testing of a mathematical model of an emergency ground water supply operated principally during periods of low streamflow. The process of ground water withdrawal and recharge is simulated taking account of streamflow, water demand, evapotranspiration, natural and artificial recharge and increased evapotranspiration due to artificial recharge, ground water pumpage, and streamflow contribution to pumped water. The model determines whether natural recharge is possible in less time than the return period of drought and also whether artificial recharge is needed. By simulating operation over a long period of time, the model can examine different droughts of short and long duration and can test the operating rules for ground water storage development in an area. Submodels analyze the components of the operating process including ground water flow into the stream, seepage losses, stream portion of well discharge due to induced infiltration and recharge from rainfall or water spreading. The model has been tested for areas in the humid northeastern United States.     

SIMULATION OF WATER POLLUTION GENERATION AND ABATEMENT ON SUBURBAN WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: Computer simulation and model calibration of three “suburban” watersheds near Salt Lake City, Utah, indicate that coliform bacteria and suspended solids are produced mainly by the presence of people, domestic animals, vehicles, disposal systems, and other constructed faclities. The importances of each of these activities is investigated and pollution abatement procedures are outlined for purposes of improved watershed management.     

PROMOTING GROUND WATER POLLUTION PREVENTION IN SMALL BUSINESSES1

ABSTRACT: Although they have not been the focus of major regulations, small businesses can contribute pollutants to ground water through routine practices. Because strict regulation of millions of micro firms is not likely, water resource professionals face a challenge of how to reach small business operators with effective pollution prevention messages. The purpose of this study was to examine the factors that influence a small business operator to adopt measures that reduce potential ground water pollution. We looked at how information delivery, internal business characteristics, and external relationships are associated with voluntary preventive measures. Mail surveys from small businesses in New Jersey municipalities and interviews with business owners provided data about business characteristics and current pollution prevention activities. Findings suggested that businesses doing the most to prevent ground water pollution were generally more connected to external organizations and had more financial and technical resources. The study also discovered that small business owners fear government involvement in their affairs. The study concludes with recommendations to encourage more voluntary adoption of prevention measures by businesses. These center on separating assistance programs from enforcement and involving industry peer groups in an effort to make information available in a non-threatening manner.     

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN GROUND WATER AND SURFACE WATER IN THE SUWANNEE RIVER BASIN,FLORIDA1

ABSTRACT: Ground water and surface water constitute a single dynamic system in most parts of the Suwannee River basin due to the presence of karst features that facilitate the interaction between the surface and subsurface. Low radon-222 concentrations (below background levels) and enriched amounts of oxygen-18 and deuterium in ground water indicate mixing with surface water in parts of the basin. Comparison of surface water and regional ground water flow patterns indicate that boundaries for ground water basins typically do not coincide with surface water drainage subbasins. There are several areas in the basin where ground water flow that originates outside of the Suwannee River basin crosses surface water basin boundaries during both low-flow and high-flow conditions. In a study area adjacent to the Suwannee River that consists predominantly of agricultural land use, 18 wells tapping the Upper Floridan aquifer and 7 springs were sampled three times during 1990 through 1994 for major dissolved inorganic constituents, trace elements, and nutrients. During a period of above normal rainfall that resulted in high river stage and high ground water levels in 1991, the combination of increased amounts of dissolved organic carbon and decreased levels of dissolved oxygen in ground water created conditions favorable for the natural reduction of nitrate by denitrification reactions in the aquifer. As a result, less nitrate was discharged by ground water to the Suwannee River.     

URBANIZATION IMPACT ON WATER QUALITY DURING A FLOOD IN SMALL WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: The impact of various urban land uses on water flow and quality in streams is being studied by monitoring small streams in the Milwaukee urban area. This paper compares the responses of an urban watershed and an agricultural watershed to an autumn rainfall of 2.2 cm. Flow from the urban basin showed a substantially greater response to the rain than that from the rural. Dilution, resulting from the greater quantities of surface runoff in the urban watershed, caused lower concentrations of sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate and total dissolved solids in the urban stream. The total quantity of these materials removed per unit drainage area of the urban basin was much greater, however. Road salt was still among the dominant dissolved materials in the urban water chemistry seven months after the last road salting. Sodium was apparently being released from adsorption by clays in the urban basin. Suspended sediment concentrations and total loads were higher in the urban stream.     

ASSESSING GROUND WATER POLLUTION POTENTIAL FROM NITROGEN FERTILIZER USING A GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM1

ABSTRACT: A geographic information system (GRASS 3.1) was used to correlate the availability of nitrogen fertilizer with the susceptibility of ground water to pollution in Texas to identify potential ground water quality problems. An agricultural pollution susceptibility map, produced by the Texas Water Commission using the DRASTIC methodology, was combined with information on cropped areas, recommended nitrogen fertilizer application rates, and aquifer outcrops. A Nitrogen Fertilizer Pollution Potential Index was generated, identifying 24 percent of Texas within the high pollution potential category An analysis of the susceptibility of major aquifer outcrops to potential pollution from nitrogen fertilizer indicated that 34 percent of the outcrop areas fall in the high pollution potential range. It is proposed that correlating the availability of a pollutant with an assessment of the susceptibility of ground water to pollution yields a more accurate screening tool for identifying potential pollution problems than considering susceptibility alone.     

WATER MANAGEMENT IN ONTARIO1

ABSTRACT: The Ontario Ministry of the Environment has based its water quality management approach on a set of guidelines published in 1970. In light of the changing societal and economic background, advancement in technology and scientific knowledge, and philosophical attitudes towards water management, the water management program was recently revised. Factors influencing the revised approach, including federal-provincial interrelationships and international commitments under the Canada-U.S. Agreement, are summarized. The revised program consists of a goal statement, policies to implement this goal, revised water quality objectives, and detailed implementation procedures for field staff use. Rather than promulgating regulations to impose arbitrary effluent or receiving water standards on a province-wide basis, the revised approach involves the imposition of legally enforceable effluent requirements on a case-by-case basis. Although the paper emphasizes the surface water quality program, it also outlines the Ministry's goals, policies, and procedures for the management of surface-water quantity, as well as ground water quality and quantity.     

AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL: IMPLICATIONS FROM THE RURAL CLEAN WATER PROGRAM1

ABSTRACT: The Rural Clean Water Program has provided a unique opportunity to study the economics of agricultural nonpoint source pollution control. Several implications for improving the economic efficiency of future agricultural nonpoint source pollution control programs can be drawn from the results. First, individual projects should be targeted towards water bodies that have water quality problems causing economic damages. Considerable variation can exist among areas in the magnitude of economic damages, which may not be proportional to physical impacts. Second, the relative costs and effectiveness of the practices selected to reduce the delivery of pollutants can vary dramatically from one location to another. Early identification and emphasis on cost-effective BMPs can substantially reduce project costs and may make a project economically justifiable that would not otherwise be so. Finally, some projects that do not hive potential economic benefits from water quality improvements exceeding government cost may have on-farm benefits from reduced costs and increased long-term yields that are sufficient to make total benefits (water quality and on-farm) exceed costs.     

AN ALTERNATIVE TO WATER POLLUTION CONTROLS1

ABSTRACT: A hypothetical, although realistic, water pollution problem was studied from a property rights viewpoint. Theoretical and economic justifications were developed. A fully-liable, private owner was found to be financially profitable while improving the water quality and providing recreational potential. The example confirmed that property rights provides an answer to stream pollution problems, but contradicted the view that water pollution control must be justified by recreational benefits.     

STRATEGIES TO CONTROL NONPOINT SOURCE WATER POLLUTION1

ABSTRACT: Strategies for controlling nonpoint sources of water pollution are discussed in terms of three representative states and eighteen regional agencies. The programs in Virginia, New York, and Wisconsin are seen to exhibit control options which range from voluntary action to strict regulation. Four conclusions are drawn from the analysis. First, nonpoint sources of pollution are a major component of the overall water pollution problem in the three states. Second, technical controls are generally available to solve the problems. Third, existing controls programs are not necessarily technologically sound or cost effective. Finally, existing control programs are capable of instituting solutions to the problems if and only if specified actions take place within the respective states and regions in the future. Critical research needs are identified which will assist states and regions in developing cost effective programs to control nonpoint source pollution.     

STREAM PHOSPHORUS EXPORTS FROM WATERSHEDS WITH CONTRASTING LAND USES IN SOUTHERN ONTARIO1

: The export of dissolved molybdate reactive phosphorus (DMRP) from 22 watersheds in the Duffin Creek drainage basin near Toronto Ontario was measured over a 25-month period. The annual average loss varied from 0.027 to 2.11 kg P/ha. Phosphorus levels in a number of watersheds were strongly influenced by effluent from a sewage treatment plant which contributed about 68 percent of the annual DMRP input to Duffin Creek. An analysis of 12 watersheds which did not contain major point pollution sources revealed that DMRP concentration and losses had a significant positive correlation with crop area and a strong negative association with forest, abandoned farm land, and area of sand + sandy loam soils. The causal relationships underlying these simple correlations are difficult to evaluate because of considerable multicollinearity between land use, soil, and topographic variables. Analysis of a mass balance for the downstream reaches of Duffin Creek indicated that there was considerable retention of phosphorus in the river channel particularly during summer low flows.     

GROUND WATER REPLENISHMENT FROM RIVERFLOW1

ABSTRACT: Ground water contours and gradients were determined within and adjacent to a gravelly riverbed with about 100 m active channel width and about 800 m flood plain width during low flow, making use of about 60 shallow dug wells and one deeper cased well Ground water slopes away from the riverbed to the south and slopes to the riverbed from the north. Replenishment of ground water to the south is past a “shell,” a zone of low permeability at the margin of and below the riverbed, (1) into a shallow aquifer from “sideway-spill-over” and (2) into an underlying aquifer that is seemingly confined by the “shell.” Seepage from river channels to underflow takes place all along channel lengths except below riffles where the flow direction is reversed. Half the seepage to underflow was lost to ground water replenishment Underflow seems to constitute merely a few percent of total riverflow but makes a disproportionate contribution to ground water replenishment.     

WATER QUALITY IN AGRICULTURAL WATERSHEDS: IMPACT OF RIPARIAN VEGETATION DURING BASE FLOW1

ABSTRACT: Water quality was monitored for 17 months during base flow periods in six agricultural watersheds to evaluate the impact of riparian vegetation on suspended solids and nutrient concentrations. In areas without riparian vegetation, both instream algal production and seasonal low flows appeared to be major determinants of suspended solids, turbidity, and phosphorus concentrations. Peak levels of all parameters were reached during the summer when flows were reduced and benthic algal production was high. Similar summer peaks were reached in streams receiving major point inputs but peaks occurred downstream from the input. Instream organic production was less important in regulating water quality in areas with riparian vegetation and permanent flows. Concentrations of suspended solids remained relatively constant, while phosphorus and turbidity increased in association with leaf fall in autumn. Intermittent flow conditions in summer increased the importance of instream organic production in controlling water quality, even when riparian vegetation was present. Efforts to improve water quality in agricultural watersheds during base flow should emphasize maintenance of riparian vegetation and stable flow conditions.     

CONFLICTS IN ATTAINING NATIONAL GOALS FOR BOTH WATER QUALITY AND ENERGY PRODUCTION1

ABSTRACT: The “policy environment” is defined herein as the institutional setting in which planning is conducted and policy decisions are made with regard to meeting two of the Nation's high priority goals: water quality protection and energy independence. The simultaneous pursuit of these goals has resulted in numerous conflicts among the energy industry, environmentalists, and government. An analysis of selected energy development-water quality conflicts shows that these conflicts can be described in terms of one or more of the following policy environment characteristics: resource scarcity, sense of urgency, lack of experience, administrative complexity, uncertainty about future policies and regulations, technological complexity, and uncertainty about impacts. These characterics provide a useful framework for formulating potential strategies for the resolution of energy development-water quality conflicts.     

222RN IN THE WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OF TUCSON,ARIZONA1

ABSTRACT: A study of ²²²Rn concentrations in the water distribution system of Tucson, Arizona, revealed levels of 60 to 1260 pCi/L in domestic waters. These measurements are comparable to levels of between 80 and 1400 pCi/l for ²²²Rn found in ground water samples in the North-Central Tucson basin (Kahn et al., 1994). Estimated loss of ²²²Rn due to radioactive decay during travel from the well head to the home ranges from 8 to 50 percent.     

INCENTIVE-BASED NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION ABATEMENT IN A REAUTHORIZED CLEAN WATER ACT1

ABSTRACT: This paper summarizes key provisions of the Clinton Administration's proposals for change in the Clean Water Act. Two of the important themes for change are tougher controls for non-point source pollution and the use of market-based instruments. A detailed analysis of market-based abatement suggests limited potential for reducing costs. The keys to nonpoint source pollution control are clearer definition of property rights combined with changes in government programs that encourage polluting activities.