Recycling and recovery routes for incinerated sewage sludge ash (ISSA): A review

The drivers for increasing incineration of sewage sludge and the characteristics of the resulting incinerated sewage sludge ash (ISSA) are reviewed. It is estimated that approximately 1.7 million tonnes of ISSA are produced annually world-wide and is likely to increase in the future. Although most ISSA is currently landfilled, various options have been investigated that allow recycling and beneficial resource recovery. These include the use of ISSA as a substitute for clay in sintered bricks, tiles and pavers, and as a raw material for the manufacture of lightweight aggregate. ISSA has also been used to form high density glass–ceramics. Significant research has investigated the potential use of ISSA in blended cements for use in mortars and concrete, and as a raw material for the production of Portland cement. However, all these applications represent a loss of the valuable phosphate content in ISSA, which is typically comparable to that of a low grade phosphate ore. ISSA has significant potential to be used as a secondary source of phosphate for the production of fertilisers and phosphoric acid. Resource efficient approaches to recycling will increasingly require phosphate recovery from ISSA, with the remaining residual fraction also considered a useful material, and therefore further research is required in this area.     

Characterizations of temperature effects on sintered ceramics manufactured with waste foundry sand and clay

The objects of this study were to use waste foundry sand (WFS) to manufacture reclaimed resource tiles and to determine the effects of different kiln temperatures on the properties of the reclaimed WFS tiles. In this study, clay was replaced with 0 or 15 % WFS to manufacture tile specimens. Four different kiln temperatures (1000, 1050, 1100, and 1150 °C) were used in this study for the manufacture of tile specimens. The test results showed that using 15 % WFS in the tile specimens allowed the kiln temperature to be lowered by 50 °C. This temperature reduction is helpful for reducing costs and energy consumption and carbon reduction. Moreover, when the kiln temperature increased from 1000 to 1100 °C and the specimens were placed in acidic and alkaline solutions, the weight loss of the tile specimens containing 15 % WFS was half that of the specimens containing 0 % WFS. The acid-alkali resistance of the tile specimens containing 15 % WFS was also improved. This result suggested that the WFS replacement and kiln temperature affected the properties of the tile specimens.     

Cathode ray tube glass recycling: an example of clean technology.

In this study the use of 'cleaned' end of life (EOL) cathode ray tube (CRT) glass as a raw material in ceramic glazes is described. At present, the recycling and industrial utilization of CRT, a glass material from TV and computer sets, is a subject of intense research with particular regard to the so-called open-loop recycling, namely cycles different from that of the origin. However, the use of CRT glass as a secondary raw material is strictly related to the demand of high-quality raw material. The good preliminary results reached by introducing clean TV and PC monitor panel and cone glass into ceramic glaze formulations pushed research toward the setting-up of a base glaze that is exploitable for the production of pigmented, silk-screened and flame-hardened glazes (products used industrially for coating floor tiles). The aesthetic and chemical characterization of the tiles glazed by this product showed an extremely similar behaviour to originals that did not contain CRT glass. The good technical results achieved have been supported by the life cycle assessment analysis, which has demonstrated a reduction of the environmental impact of the CRT glass-containing ceramic glaze with respect to the standard one.     

Fast firing of tiles containing paper mill sludge, glass cullet and clay

The paper describes results obtained in the development of a previous research. We study here, in fast firing, the sintering behaviour and measure some properties of tiles containing a mixture of 60 wt% of paper mill sludge and 40 wt% of glass cullet. The behaviour of this material is compared to those displayed by materials obtained by the same mixture added with 10, 20 and 30 wt% of a natural red clay. In parallel, the same properties are measured also on a reference blend, which is presently used to produce commercial tiles. We show that powders containing 60 wt% of paper sludge and 40 wt% of glass cullet to which 30 wt% of clay is added give rise to materials that display a stable sintering process and have good hardness and strength and therefore could be used for the industrial production of tiles.     

Characterization of ceramic roof tile wastes as pozzolanic admixture

The aim of this work is to study the recycling of tile wastes in the manufacture of blended cements. Cracked or broken ceramic bodies are not accepted as commercial products and, therefore, the unsold waste of the ceramic industry becomes an environment problem. The use of powdered roof tile in cement production, as pozzolanic addition, is reported. The wastes were classified as nonglazed, natural and black glazed tiles. The mineralogy of the powders was controlled by SEM-EDX microscopy, XRD analysis and FTIR spectroscopy. Particle size was checked by laser granulometry. Once the materials were fully characterized, pozzolanic lime consumption tests and Fratini tests were carried out. Different formulations of cement-tile blends were prepared by incorporation of up to 30% weight ratios of recycled waste. The compressive strength of the resulting specimens was measured. The evolution of hydration of the cement-tile blends was analyzed by XRD and FTIR techniques. Vibrational spectroscopy presented accurate evidence of pozzolanic activity. The results of the investigation confirmed the potential use of these waste materials to produce pozzolanic cement.     

Improvements of nano-SiO2 on sludge/fly ash mortar

Sewage sludge ash has been widely applied to cementitious materials. In this study, in order to determine effects of nano-SiO(2) additives on properties of sludge/fly ash mortar, different amounts of nano-SiO(2) were added to sludge/fly ash mortar specimens to investigate their physical properties and micro-structures. A water-binding ratio of 0.7 was assigned to the mix. Substitution amounts of 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% of sludge/fly ash (1:1 ratio) were proposed. Moreover, 0%, 1%, 2%, and 3% of nano-SiO(2) was added to the mix. Tests, including SEM and compressive strength, were carried out on mortar specimens cured at 3, 7, and 28 days. Results showed that sludge/fly ash can make the crystals of cement hydration product finer. Moreover, crystals increased after nano-SiO(2) was added. Hence, nano-SiO(2) can improve the effects of sludge/fly ash on the hydration of mortar. Further, due to the low pozzolanic reaction active index of sludge ash, early compressive strengths of sludge/fly ash mortar were decreased. Yet, nano-SiO(2) could help produce hydration crystals, which implies that the addition of nano-SiO(2) to mortar can improve the influence of sludge/fly ash on the development of the early strength of the mortar.     

Synthetic aggregates from combustion ashes using an innovative rotary kiln

This paper describes the use of a number of different combustion ashes to manufacture synthetic aggregates using an innovative rotary 'Trefoil' kiln. Three types of combustion ash were used, namely: incinerated sewage sludge ash (ISSA); municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash (MSWIBA-- referred to here as BA); and pulverised fuel ash (Pfa). The fine waste ash fractions listed above were combined with a binder to create a plastic mix that was capable of being formed into 'green pellets'. These pellets were then fired in a Trefoil kiln to sinter the ashes into hard fused aggregates that were then tested for use as a replacement for the natural coarse aggregate in concrete. Results up to 28 days showed that these synthetic aggregates were capable of producing concretes with compressive strengths ranging from 33 to 51 MPa, equivalent to between 73 and 112% of that of the control concrete made with natural aggregates.     

Coal fly ash utilization: low temperature sintering of wall tiles

We present here a study of the sintering of fly ash and its mixture with low alkali pyrophyllite in the presence of sodium hexa meta phosphate (SHMP), a complex activator of sintering, for the purpose of wall tile manufacturing. The sintering of fly ash with SHMP in the temperature range 925-1050 degrees C produces tiles with low impact strength; however, the incremental addition of low alkali pyrophyllite improves impact strength. The impact strength of composites with 40% (w/w) pyrophyllite in the fly ash-pyrophyllite mix satisfies the acceptable limit (19.6J/m) set by the Indian Standards Institute for wall tiles. Increasing the pyrophyllite content results in an increase in the apparent density of tiles, while shrinkage and water absorption decrease. The strength of fly ash tiles is attributed to the formation of a silicophosphate phase; in pyrophyllite rich tiles, it is attributed to the formation of a tridymite-structured T-AlPO(4) phase. Scanning electron micrographs show that the reinforcing rod shaped T-AlPO(4) crystals become more prominent as the pyrophyllite content increases in the sintered tiles.     

UTILIZING THE USED CATALYST FROM REFINERY FCC UNITS AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR KAOLIN IN FORMULATING CERAMIC FRITS

Frits are materials of a vitreous nature which are used for obtaining the glaze used to coat glazed ceramic tiles. One of the raw materials usually employed in preparing frits is kaolin, which provides the aluminium and part of the silicon they contain.This study investigates the possibility of utilizing the used catalyst from the FCC (fluidized catalyst cracking) units involved in petroleum refining, to substitute for kaolin as a raw material in the preparation of ceramic frits. On assessing the aesthetic and technical characteristics (whiteness, gloss, microhardness, etc.) of the glazes obtained from two frits that were prepared by substituting kaolin with the industrial waste mentioned above, no important differences were observed relative to the characteristics of the glazes obtained from the standard frits.     

Critical evaluation of the use of the hydroxyapatite as a stabilizing agent to reduce the mobility of Zn and Ni in sewage sludge amended soils

The leachability of zinc (Zn) and nickel (Ni) was investigated in various soil types amended with sewage sludge and sewage sludge treated with hydroxyapatite. Sandy, clay and peat soils were investigated. For leachability tests, plastic columns (diameter 9 cm, height 50 cm) were filled with moist samples up to a height of 25 cm. Sewage sludge (1 kg) was mixed with 4.6 kg of clay and sandy soils and with 6.7 kg of peat soil. For sewage sludge mixtures treated with hydroxyapatite, 0.5 kg of the hydroxyapatite was added to 1 kg of the sewage sludge. Neutral (pH 7) and acid precipitation (pH 3.5) were applied. Acid precipitation was prepared from concentrated HNO(3), H(2)SO(4) and fresh doubly distilled water. The amount of precipitation corresponded to the average annual precipitation for the city of Ljubljana, Slovenia. It was divided into eight equal portions and applied sequentially on the top of the columns. The results indicated that the leachabilities of Zn in sewage sludge amended peat and clay soils were low (below 0.3% of total Zn content) and of Ni in sewage sludge amended sandy, clay and peat soil below 1.9% of total Ni content. In sewage sludge amended sandy soil, the leachability of Zn was higher (11% of Zn content). The pH of precipitation had no influence on the leachability of either metal. Treatment of sewage sludge with hydroxyapatite efficiently reduced the leachability of Zn in sewage sludge amended sandy soil (from 11% to 0.2% of total Zn content). In clay and peat sewage sludge amended soils, soil characteristics rather than hydroxyapatite treatment dominate Zn mobility.     

Recovery of municipal waste incineration bottom ash and water treatment sludge to water permeable pavement materials

Water treatment plant sludge and municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash are non-hazardous residues, and they can be reprocessed to produce useful materials for city public works. In this study, an effort was endeavored to investigate the properties of water permeable bricks made of water treatment sludge and bottom ash without involving an artificial aggregate step. The water treatment plant sludge was dried and ground, and the bottom ash was subjected to magnetic separation to remove ferrous metals. Both sludge and bottom ash were ground and sieved to a size of <2mm. Different contents of water treatment sludge (70-95% by weight) were mixed with bottom ash and the blocks were molded under a pressure of 110 kg/cm2. Thereafter, the molded blocks were sintered at temperatures of 900-1200 degrees C for 60-360 min. The compressive strength, permeability and water absorption rate of the sintered brick were examined and compared to relevant standards. The amount of bottom ash added in the mixture with water treatment sludge affects both the compressive strength and the permeability of the sintered bricks. The two effects are antonymous as higher bottom ash content will develop a beehive configuration and have more voids in the brick. It is concluded that a 20% weight content of bottom ash under a sintering condition of 1150 degrees C for 360 min can generate a brick with a compressive strength of 256 kg/cm2, a water absorption ratio of 2.78% and a permeability of 0.016 cm/s.     

Fly ash of mineral coal as ceramic tiles raw material

The aim of this work was to evaluate the use of mineral coal fly ash as a raw material in the production of ceramic tiles. The samples of fly ash came from Capivari de Baixo, a city situated in the Brazilian Federal State of Santa Catarina. The fly ash and the raw materials were characterized regarding their physical chemical properties, and, based on these results; batches containing fly ash and typical raw materials for ceramic tiles were prepared. The fly ash content in the batches varied between 20 and 80 wt%. Specimens were molded using a uniaxial hydraulic press and were fired. All batches containing ash up to 60 wt% present adequate properties to be classified as several kinds of products in the ISO 13006 standard () regarding its different absorption groups (pressed). The results obtained indicate that fly ash, when mixed with traditional raw materials, has the necessary requirements to be used as a raw material for production of ceramic tiles.     

Production of technical grade phosphoric acid from incinerator sewage sludge ash (ISSA)

The recovery of phosphorus from sewage sludge ash samples obtained from 7 operating sludge incinerators in the UK using a sulfuric acid washing procedure to produce a technical grade phosphoric acid product has been investigated. The influences of reaction time, sulfuric acid concentration, liquid to solid ratio and source of ISSA on P recovery have been examined. The optimised conditions were the minimum stoichiometric acid requirement, a reaction time of 120 min and a liquid to solid ratio of 20. Under these conditions, average recoveries of between 72% and 91% of total phosphorus were obtained. Product filtrate was purified by passing through a cation exchange column, concentrated to 80% H₃PO₄ and compared with technical grade H₃PO₄ specifications. The economics of phosphate recovery by this method are briefly discussed.     

Some limitations of sluiced fly ash as a liming material for acidic soils

Innovative methods are currently being sought to safely utilize and reduce the amount of sluiced fly ash stored in on-site facilities at thermal electric power facilities in Ontario, Canada. The objective of this study was to investigate the possibility of utilizing sluiced fly ash as a liming material on acidic soils. A greenhouse experiment was established to examine the influence of the ash on soil pH values and the yield and chemical composition of corn, soybeans, wheat and alfalfa grown on amended soil.The sluiced ash had an initial pH value of 9.1 (1:1 H₂O) and contained an equivalent CaCO₃ content of 11.5% (±0.2%) based on total content of Ca and Mg in the ash. Fly ash was applied at rates of up to 167 tonnes ha⁻¹ to samples of the surface horizon (0–15 cm) of an acidic clay textured soil found local to the power plant. Application of fly ash increased soil pH values but a high concentration of boron in the added ash limited plant growth. Results indicated that the sluiced ash could be used as a liming material at application rates of up to 110 tonnes ha⁻¹, on acidic, clay textured soils provided boron tolerant crops such as alfalfa were grown. Further research is required to establish the potential for leaching of boron to ground water and to determine the potential for plant uptake of other trace elements such as As and Se.     

Lightweight aggregate made from sewage sludge and incinerated ash

In this study, sewage sludge ash (SSA), with similar characteristics to expansive clay, was used as the principal material and sewage sludge (SS) as the admixture to sinter lightweight aggregate and to study the influences of raw material composition on pelletising, sintering effect and aggregate properties. Results showed that both SS and SSA could be sintered to produce synthetic aggregates individually or mixed. Increasing the amount of SS would decrease the pelletising ratio. Under the consideration of energy saving, the mixture of SSA was better for sintering normal weight aggregate. On the contrary, the mixture that added 20-30% of SS was more adequate to make lightweight aggregates. Adding SS would enhance the oxidation-reduction reaction and lower the bulk density and sintering temperature of aggregates to save energy. Sintering temperature affected the properties of sewage sludge ash lightweight aggregate (SSALA) more than retention period did. Prolonging the retention period could improve bloating effect.     

Effects of using arsenic–iron sludge wastes in brick making

The arsenic–iron sludge generated in most of the treatment systems around the world is discharged into the nearest watercourse, which leads to accumulative rise of arsenic and iron concentrations in water. In this study, attempts were made to use the arsenic–iron sludge in making bricks and to analyze the corresponding effects on brick properties. The water treatment plant sludge is extremely close to brick clay in chemical composition. So, the sludge could be a potential substitute for brick clay. This study involved the addition of sludge with ratios 3%, 6%, 9% and 12% of the total weight of sludge–clay mixture. The physical and chemical properties of the produced bricks were then determined and evaluated and compared to control brick made entirely from clay. Results of different tests indicated that the sludge proportion and firing temperature were the two key factors in determining the quality of bricks. The compressive strength of 3%, 6%, 9% and 12% sludge containing brick samples were found to be 14.1 MPa, 15.1 MPa, 9.4 MPa and 7.1 MPa, respectively. These results indicate that the compressive strength of prepared bricks initially increased and then decreased with the increase of sludge proportion. Leaching characteristics of burnt bricks were determined with the variation of pH at a constant temperature. The optimum amount of sludge that could be mixed with clay to produce good bonding of clay–sludge bricks was found to be 6% (safely maximum) by weight.     

Recycling of Malaysia’s electric arc furnace (EAF) slag waste into heavy-duty green ceramic tile

Recently, various solid wastes from industry such as glass waste, fly ash, sewage sludge and slag have been recycled into various value-added products such as ceramic tile. The conventional solutions of dumping the wastes in landfills or incineration, including in Malaysia are getting obsolete as the annual huge amount of the solid wastes would boost-up disposal cost and may cause permanent damage to the flora and fauna. This recent waste recycling approach is much better and greener as it can resolve problems associated with over-limit storage of industrial wastes and reduce exploration of natural resources for ceramic tile to continuously sustain the nature. Therefore, in this project, an attempt was made to recycle electric arc furnace (EAF) slag waste, obtained from Malaysia’s steel making industry, into ceramic tile via conventional powder compaction method. The research work was divided into two stages. The first stage was to evaluate the suitability of EAF slag in ceramic tile by varying weight percentage of EAF slag (40 wt.%, 50 wt.% and 60 wt.%) and ball clay (40 wt.%, 50 wt.% and 60 wt.%), with no addition of silica and potash feldspar. In the second stage, the weight percentage of EAF slag was fixed at 40 wt.% and the percentage of ball clay (30 wt.% and 40 wt.%), feldspar (10 wt.% and 20 wt.%) and silica (10 wt.% and 20 wt.%) added was varied accordingly. Results obtained show that as weight percentage of EAF slag increased up to 60 wt.%, the percentage of apparent porosity and water absorption also rose, with a reduction in tile flexural strength and increased porosity. On the other hand, limiting the weight percentage of EAF slag to 40 wt.% while increasing the weight percentage of ball clay led to a higher total percentage of anorthite and wollastonite minerals, resulting in higher flexural strength. It was found that introduction of silica and feldspar further improved the flexural strength due to optimization of densification process. The highest flexural strength, lowest apparent porosity and water absorption of EAF slag based tile was attained at the composition of 40 wt.% EAF slag – 30 wt.% ball clay – 10 wt.% feldspar – 20 wt.% silica. The properties of ceramic tile made with EAF slag waste (up to 40 wt.%), especially flexural strength are comparable to those of commercial ceramic tile and are, therefore, suitable as high flexural strength and heavy-duty green ceramic floor tile. Continuous development is currently underway to improve the properties of tile so that this recycling approach could be one of the potential effective, efficient and sustainable solutions in sustaining our nature.     

Hydrothermal treatment of MSWI bottom ash forming acid-resistant material

To recycle municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) bottom ash, synthesis of hydrothermal minerals from bottom ash was performed to stabilize heavy metals. MSWI bottom ash was mixed with SiO(2), Al(OH)(3), and Mg(OH)(2) so its chemical composition was similar to that of hydrothermal clay minerals. These solid specimens were mixed with water at a liquid/solid ratio of 5. The reaction temperature was 200 degrees C, and reactions were performed for 24-240h. Generation of kaolinite/smectite mixed-layer clay mineral was found in the samples after the reaction of the mixture of bottom ash, SiO(2), and Mg(OH)(2). Calcium silicate hydrate minerals such as tobermorite and xonotlite were also generated. X-ray powder diffraction suggested the presence of amorphous materials. Leaching tests at various pHs revealed that the concentration of heavy metals in the leachates from MSWI bottom ash hydrothermally treated with SiO(2) and Mg(OH)(2) was lower than that in leachates from non-treated bottom ash, especially under acid conditions. Hydrothermal treatment with modification of chemical composition may have potential for the recycling of MSWI bottom ash.     

利用废旧塑料和粉煤灰制建筑用瓦

探讨了利用废旧塑料和粉煤灰制建筑用瓦的工艺方法及条件,并与瓦的密度,吸水性、抗冻性、抗化性和抗折强度进行了检测。     

Moisture retention of municipal solid waste mixed with sewage sludge and ash in a semi-arid climate.

Mechanisms involved in moisture storage in refuse are explored using data from four sets of experiments in a semi-arid climate. Two laboratory series of experiments contained municipal solid waste (MSW) amended with sewage sludge, one with higher proportions of ash in the MSW than the other. Outdoor experiments contained waste streams with different proportions of ash. Field cells compared moisture retention of refuse and MSW co-disposed with sewage sludge. Sewage sludge at high loads was found to increase the moisture storage relative to unamended MSW. Belt-pressed sludge retained water as bound water that was released by decay and changing pH. Sun-dried sludge also retained more moisture than MSW alone. In gravimetric terms, ash reduced the storage potential of MSW, in laboratory and outdoor experiments. However, outdoor experiments released less leachate from ash-rich refuse than middle-income waste with no ash fraction.