Representing Refugees: The Role of Elites in Burundi Refugee Society

Among Burundi refugees in Tanzania, men who have a university education and know English or French are most likely to represent their concerns to officials, particularly those from UNHCR. Officials consequently learn about the perspectives of refugees from these men. Based upon findings from two years of field, research in Tanzania, the history of relations between ethnic Hutu elites and the peasantry in Burundi is outlined and it is explained why education has assumed such pronounced significance in Burundi refugee society. The use of ethnicity as a political tool for elite refugees is also described. It is concluded that elite refugees may not, as is often claimed, represent the refugee majority.     

Environmental Causes and Impact of Refugee Movements: A Critique of the Current Debate

The relationships between insecurity, environmental change and population displacement are discussed in this paper. It argues that environmental change and concomitant population displacement are the consequences of war and insecurity rather than triggers for it — as postulated in so much of the recent literature. Additionally, the paper critically reviews the state of knowledge concerning the impact of refugees on the environment of host countries. The aim here is not to document the negative or positive impacts as such, but rather to de-mythologise some aspects of the state of knowledge which through repetition have become accepted as 'scientific truth'.     

Evaluation of Two Kurdish Refugee Camps in Iran, May 1991: The Value of Cluster Sampling in Producing Priorities and Policy

Following the end of the Gulf war in March 1991, Kurdish refugees from Iraq crossed the border into Western Iran. To plan public health interventions and to assist in priority setting for scarce resources, a rapid epidemiological assessment of two camps, Hafez and Kaliche, was conducted in May 1991. A 30 cluster sampling method was used to determine the demographics of the camp population, the morbidity and mortality from certain diseases, and the nutritional status of the children <5 years of age. The estimated population of the camps at the time of the survey was 28,500 and 22,500 for Hafez and Kaliche respectively; children < 5 years of age accounted for approximately 25 per cent of both camp populations. The mortality rate was highest in Hafez and estimated to be 2.5/10,000 per day (95%CI:0.3–5) for adults (> 14 years of age) and 4.9/10,000 per day (95%CI:2.4–7.4) for children. Diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases accounted for major morbidity in both camps with diarrhoea the commonest stated cause of death. Little malnutrition was found but it was greater in Hafez where 6 per cent (19/327) of the children between 1 and 5 years of age had a mid upper arm circumference (MUAC) <12 cm and eleven (5.2 per cent) of the 211 children measured for height and weight were below 80 per cent of the median (95%CI:2.6%;7.8%). The survey identified that morbidity and mortality were less severe than in the Kurdish camps on the Turkish border and provided information for camp authorities to plan appropriate relief interventions.     

Why Aid Agencies Need Better Understanding of the Communities They Assist: The Experience of Food Aid in Rwandan Refugee Camps

Refugee views on food aid reveal the ignorance of the international community regarding Rwandan culture, economy and politics. This ignorance carries a number of costs. On one level, the main cost is that a professional service is not carried out to the best of one's ability. Ignorance of Rwanda's North–South divide, for instance, has caused agencies to be insensitive to in-camp discrimination based upon regional identity and its impact on programme activities. On a deeper level, agency ignorance about Rwandan culture, economy and the dynamics of camp politics, reduces refugee confidence in humanitarian agencies and workers. Better information would not only result in the greater likelihood of appropriate responses to specific needs, but would also encourage greater credibility in the political arena where the ultimate stake is to see lasting peace and a dignified return of refugees to their homes.     

The Sphere Project: The Implications of Making Humanitarian Principles and Codes Work

In 1996, in recognition of concerns about humanitarian response efforts, non- governmental organisations (NGOs) launched the Sphere Project, the first collaborative initiative to produce globally applicable minimum standards for humanitarian response. The aims of the Sphere Project are to improve the effectiveness of humanitarian efforts and to enhance the accountability of the humanitarian system, primarily to those people who have a right to protection and assistance in disasters, as well as to agency members and donors.
This paper discusses the purpose of the Sphere Project, the unique process that brought it about and the major concerns that have been raised about its practical application. Finally, the paper considers the implications of this for improving the impact of humanitarian response and for future initiatives given the process that Sphere has begun. It argues that improved accountability does not start and stop with NGOs. They are just one element of a wider humanitarian response effort and more needs to be done to improve the system as a whole.     

Food Security Reserve Policy in Ethiopia: A Case Study of Experience and Implications

Food security reserve policy in Ethiopia since 1982 is reviewed in the light of the limited progress made elsewhere in Africa in establishing and maintaining such reserves. While the reserve played some role in dealing with the crisis of 1987/8, donor confidence was eroded by unauthorised drawings from the reserve and other factors. In 1992, the Ethiopian Food Security Reserve Authority was established to provide a system of management more acceptable to donors. This had led to donor pledges to replenish the reserve, though it remains well below the target level. Despite increased government commitment of funds, donor confidence remains fragile and the reserve remains dependent on donor support. The place of the reserve in national food security policy is not yet fully defined. Conclusions are drawn for food security reserve policy in Ethiopia and elsewhere in Africa.     

Children's Experience of Conflict Related Emergencies: Some Implications for Relief Policy and Practice

This paper challenges the limited models of childhood, conflict and relief which determine most humanitarian interventions targeting children in conflict related emergencies. In particular, it notes the tendency of relief programmes to focus on "spectacular" groups of children (orphans, child combatants and refugees) at the expense of larger child populations indirectly affected by conflict. This relief bias is attributed to an inappropriate 'apocalypse model' of conflict which sees relief interventions only as repair. The bias also lies in a mistakenly universalist model of childhood and a medical paradigm which pathologizes children's experience in conflict and characterizes children as passive victims rather than active survivors. The paper argues for greater recognition of the wider social experience of children in conflict, and for relief practice which takes account of childhood resilience and children's different roles and capacities in coping with conflict. Appropriate interventions must engage with the wide variety of indigenous coping mechanisms involving children and not simply replicate a standard package of relief interventions in every emergency, based on simplistic and universalist interpretations of children's experience of conflict.     

Malnutrition and Mortality During Recent Famines in Ethiopia: Implications for Food Aid and Rehabilitation

The 1972-73 and 1984-85 famines varied significantly among different populations within famine areas at the regional, community and household levels. Political and social factors were crucial in this pattern. Evidence from both pastoral and farming areas indicates that the development of community-based resources may be less disruptive socially and economically and result in less morbidity and mortality than dependence on relief shelters. Areas needing further study are identified.     

隧道纵向通风对火灾规模和火灾蔓延的影响

隧道纵向通风一方面会给火源提供大量氧气,扩大火灾规模,增加火灾蔓延的可能性;另一方面又可以带走大量热量,减小火灾蔓延的可能性。目前,这两方面影响的相对重要性还没有被很好地研究。本文对纵向通风对隧道火灾蔓延的影响进行了研究,首先分析了纵向通风对隧道火灾规模的影响,然后利用火灾动力学模拟程序FDS,对不同通风速率及相应火灾规模条件下隧道内车辆间的火灾蔓延进行了数值模拟,得出了不同通风速率条件下火灾蔓延的规律,并提出了控制隧道火灾蔓延的措施。结果表明,增加通风速率能较大地增加货车火灾的热释放速率,当通风速率小于2 m/s时,火灾蔓延的距离随通风速率的增加而增大,当通风速率大于2 m/s时,火灾蔓延的距离受通风速率的影响很小;对于客车火灾,通风对火灾的热释放速率影响较小,并且火灾蔓延的距离随通风速率的增大而减小。     

A case study of perceptions of climate change impacts and child well-being: Implications for development programming

Climate change will affect those most vulnerable in the developing world, and humanitarian relief and development organizations will need to respond. Using a quantitative survey, the attitudes of World Vision staff towards climate change and its risks for children were examined. Results indicate a very strong awareness of climate change and its risks to the key outcome indicator of the organization (child well-being), but there are significant variations within the organization. Specific groups perceive fewer risks to child well-being and may be less supportive of action on climate change. Internal strategies are needed to build necessary commitments to organizational action.     

SARS疫情的标度性质及其物理意义

使用Zipf分布研究了2003年4月20日前后中国内地各省的SARS疫情,发现SARS病例数满足分段的幂律关系,其中不同的段分别相应于不同的传播方式。资料显示,4月20日前后北京地区处于非常特殊的状态,此时所采取的非常措施看来是十分必要的。     

实事求是与中国特色的防震减灾

强烈地震常常以其突发性、瞬时性、毁灭性和次生灾害的连发性、给人类生存安全、经济建设和社会稳定带来严重危害。     

学校灾害教育现状调查研究及其启示

调查旨在了解学校灾害教育实施的实际情况,总结问题,提出相应策略。按照地理区划,分别选取了部分省市不同地区、不同学校的教师作为调查对象,回收有效问卷共计375份。调查结果表明:灾害教育实施现状不尽如人意,存在诸如"教师虽积极认同灾害教育价值,但教学中却较少主动实施"等问题,提出应构建灾害教育体系,形成长效机制,促进灾害教育开展。     

结构性和相对密度对南京细砂抗液化强度的影响

结合南京长江四桥工程场地的液化试验结果,分析了相对密度和结构性对南京细砂抗液化强度的影响:重塑南京细砂的抗液化强度与相对密度具有较好的一一对应性,且随着相对密度增大而增大;结构性的存在使南京细砂原状砂样比重塑砂样具有更高的抗液化强度,但随着循环荷载的减小和振动作用次数的增加,两者的抗液化强度逐渐接近;由于结构性的影响,不同相对密度的原状南京细砂的抗液化强度有可能相同。     

Practical Science and Technology for Disaster Reduction in Chinese Academy of Sciences

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