Optimum cutting age for timber resources with carbon sequestration

Determining the optimum cutting age for timber resources has proved to be a very challenging problem for both economists and silviculturists. Based upon Samuelson's seminal work on this issue, the majority of economists have concluded that the optimum felling age occurs at a time when the net marginal benefits fall below the current rate of interest. Recently, concern about climate change has increased the importance of forestry projects, since trees act as natural biological scrubbers by removing CO₂ from the atmosphere. By incorporating these carbon sequestration benefits, this paper re-determines the optimum cutting age using a multiple rotation model. The results of this reformulation show that, in afforestation projects, trees should remain in the ground longer than the period suggested by a timber-only model in order to absorb more CO₂.     

Restitution of forest property in post-communist Bulgaria

After ten years of post-communist transformation, the current Bulgarian Government has only recently initiated the task of wholesale reform of the communist-era structures extant within the forestry sector. This is an unavoidably complex process, involving the reorganisation of tenure over forest resources (restitution to pre-communist era owners), the privatisation and decentralisation of commercial and related activities in the woods, the redefinition of the role of the State in oversight, management and planning, and the development of a supportive institutional context for the growth of small and medium private enterprise throughout the forestry production process. This paper discusses the legal, institutional, economic and environmental implications of forest restitution. The author argues that the particular Bulgarian solution to the reform of forestry tenure structures, based on a mix of private and public ownership, arises out of the crucible of Bulgarian historical geography and the requirements of contemporary neoliberal models of transition. On the basis of the analysis, a number of important implications for Bulgarian, and indeed all post-communist forestry sectors, are raised for major related processes, such as the development of a robust private forestry sector, the limitation of the role of the State to conservation, management and oversight, and the reconfiguration of timber as a resource for local economic development.     

Sustainable forestry management in developing countries

The central message of this paper is that natural forests have multiple uses and multiple users. The paper describes the crisis in Asian forestry and four failures which lie behind the crisis. The first failure is related to economic policy which has consistently underpriced timber, not accounting for the true cost of replacing the felled trees or the value of non-timber goods and services (including environmental services). The second failure stems from the lack of community involvement in managing forests. The third failure is that of forestry institutions which have not been able to adapt to changes required to meet new challenges — away from timber extraction towards environmental services and social forestry. The fourth failure arises from technological constraints, including difficulties in carrying out long-term research (to cover the 20–40 year time horizon in the forestry sector) and ineffective application of research results. A number of specific suggestions for moving toward sustained yield management in Asia are presented. The sustainable management of forests in Asia is crucial not only for indigenous peoples, the environment and economies of the countries of Asia, but also for the biodiversity and health of the global environment.     

Reckless denudation of forest wealth in India

Summary It has been shown in recent surveys, that in India there is an upward trend in the area of open forest, which has grown from 10.06 million ha to 26.32 million ha in a few years. But the closed forests of India have registered a fall from 36.02 million ha to around 33 million ha. The latter fact is both significant and disturbing. It proves that in spite of the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, the process of degeneration of forests, in India, constantly continues. It is obvious that a part of the open forests must have come from closed forests due to the reckless denudation of forests, carried out in the name of development. A massive afforestation/reforestation programme is desired to achieve the target of one third of the geographical area of the country to be under forest cover for proper ecological balance. India has to develop a sound National Forest Policy to meet the requirements of the country, to produce industrial wood, for forest based industries, defence, communication and other public purposes, and small timbers fuel wood and fodder for the rural community. In this context the decision taken by the Control Board of Forestry in December, 1987, is quite encouraging. It was resolved that the extraction of wood from the forests would be stopped and the country's need for timber and fuelwood would be met by importing wood and by means of farm forestry. The reconstitution of the National Wasteland Development Board and the planting target of 5 million ha p.a. are other positive steps in this direction. Extensive research is needed for a better and new approach to social and commercial forestry.Dr Om Prasad, the senior author, is a biologist in the Department of Zoology, University of Allahabad. He is responsible for developing a number of Environmental Biology Courses at graduate and post-graduate level. Besides being actively engaged in research on the adverse toxilogical effects of a number of commonly used food additives, he supports environmental protection activities including the provision of guidance to the Students Nature Club which is affiliated to WWF-India.Dr Pawan Kumar, after teaching for seven years in the Department of Forestry at Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Bihar, recently joined the Department of Environment of the Government of India where he is in charge of a number of environmental projects. Dr O.N. Pandey is a specialist in Forestry teaching at Birsa Agricultural University, India.     

Education and advice contribute to increased density of broadleaved conservation trees, but not saplings, in young forest in Sweden

The effectiveness of different conservation policies is debated, but the policies are rarely evaluated quantitatively. A voluntary or 'soft' policy based mainly on education provides information about ecosystems and effects of land use, to encourage conservation action. Swedish forestry relies mainly on soft policy, with substantial resources for education and advice to more than 200,000 forest owners, while legal regulation is weak. Increased retention of broadleaved trees at clear-cutting, with environmental benefits in the conifer-dominated forestry, is important in the policy. We used the Swedish National Forest Inventory to analyse this policy for young forests in southern Sweden. Between 1983-1987 and 1998-2002 the policy had no positive effect on saplings (1.3m tall to 4.9 cm dbh) of birch, oak, beech and other species that mostly decreased in density, due to planting of conifers and browsing by ungulates. However, broadleaved conservation trees (>or=15 cm dbh) increased in density, e.g. to about one oak and six birches per ha in young coniferous forest in 1998-2002. The relative increase in density was higher for large (>or=20 cm dbh) than for small trees (15-20 cm dbh). The density of conservation trees was higher on forestland of high than of low productivity. Thus, the soft conservation policy did not influence regeneration of saplings in this type of forestry system, but large broadleaved trees were increasingly saved at 'clear-cuttings'. Advice and educational programmes probably contributed to this result. A continued increase in conservation trees at harvest may require economical support to forest owners.     

Exploring constraints and incentives for the adoption of agroforestry practices on degraded cropland in Uzbekistan

Agroforestry is often an economically viable land-use option for the environmental rehabilitation of salinized cropping areas in irrigated drylands, but afforestation initiative at the farm level is subject to various socio-political constraints. We analyzed the factors that affect farmer decisions with respect to the agroforestry adoption using an ex ante approach through Ethnographic Decision Tree Modeling (EDTM). Constraints on agroforestry adoption were identified via a review of legal documents, focus-group discussions, and a farm survey in northwest Uzbekistan. The findings highlighted the importance of farmer perceptions of risk with respect to decision making surrounding the adoption of alternative land uses. The EDTM analysis allowed determining those policy incentives for afforestation that could directly influence the decision-making process of potential participants. In particular, there is a need for increased land-use flexibility, improved land tenure and tree plantation proprietorship security, increased awareness raising and training in agroforestry practices, and greater institutional support.     

An integrated assessment model of carbon sequestration benefits: a case study of Liping county, China

This research attempts to model the complexity of planting trees to increase China's CO(2) sequestration potential by using a GIS-based integrated assessment (IA) approach. We use the IA model to assess the impact of China's Grain for Green reforestation and afforestation program on farmer and state incomes as well as CO(2) sequestration in Liping County, Guizhou Province. The IA model consists of five sub-models for carbon sequestration, crop income, timber income, Grain for Green, and carbon credits. It also includes a complementary qualitative module for assessing program impacts by gender and ethnicity. Using four scenarios with various assumptions about types of trees planted, crop incomes by township, CO(2) credit prices, state subsidies, methods for estimating carbon sequestered, and harvesting of trees, we find great variation in the impact of the Grain for Green program on incomes and on carbon sequestered over a 48 year period at both the county and township levels.     

脱贫攻坚视角下森林生态产品供给有效路径选择——基于黑龙江省的实证分析

以黑龙江省为例,在脱贫攻坚视角下,选取林业产业总产值、造林面积、林业固定资产投资完成额、林业系统年末从业人数、林业产业结构比例5个有关森林生态产品供给效率的测算指标,通过DEA模型对黑龙江省2001—2017年森林生态产品供给效率进行测算,并运用Tobit模型对该效率的影响因素进行分析。结果表明:(1)黑龙江省森林生态产品供给效率的综合效率总体良好。(2)森林生态产品供给效率的综合效率与规模效率密切相关。(3)林业旅游与休闲服务收入比重和林业生态建设实际到位金额与供给效率显著正相关,而火灾次数与供给效率显著负相关。     

State interventions and natural resource management: A study on social interfaces in a riverine fisheries setting in Kerala, India

This article attempts to analyse the social interface between formal institutions and local fishing communities along the Pamba‐Achankovil River Basin in Kerala, India. It examines primarily the nature of the relationship between state agencies and traditional fishing communities in the context of (i) enforcing certain formal regulations of resource use and (ii) implementing resource enhancement programmes. The article also analyses the nature of social interfaces that emerge when local level formal organizations, such as cooperatives and gram panchayats, take up resource management or community welfare schemes on behalf of the traditional fisherfolk in the study region. Social interfaces can be understood in terms of social processes, such as cooperation, accommodation and conflicts between various actors involved in fisheries management. The article is based on ethnographic fieldwork. Interview guides and focus group discussions were the primary tools of data collection. The findings show that the relationships between formal institutions and traditional riverine fishing communities lack mutual trust. Conflicts between fishing communities and state agencies emerge when the formal institutions threaten or contradict those elements of local culture that sustain livelihood needs. Conflicts and discontent with a particular formal institution can also lead to the modification or violation of coexisting institutional arrangements.     

Tree plantations for restoration of degraded lands and greening of India: a case study of tree growers' cooperatives

India has over 100 m ha (million hectares) of village common lands. De jure, these lands are owned by the state but, de facto, they are used in common by villagers. Most of the village commons are degraded and denuded and are almost nonproductive. Several attempts have been made in the recent past to restore them through planting of trees by governmental and non-governmental organizations. Tree Growers' Co-operative Societies (TGCS), as an organisational innovation of relatively recent origin, have proved to be more cost-effective than other forms of organisations engaged in greening the village commons in India. This paper attempts to assess the financial viability of tree plantations carried out by three selected TGCS and to distil lessons of their experience useful for policy purposes. The study revealed that plantations founded by the sample TGCS were financially viable, and that the plantations had transformed the desolate village commons into 'green wealth'. The authors conclude that the TGCS have a high potential as an instrument for promoting the afforestation of India's degraded village common lands and thereby improving village economy and the quality of the environment.     

Politics of Co-Optation: Community Forest Management Versus Joint Forest Management in Orissa,India

The article considers the impact of introducing government co-management policy in the form of Joint Forest Management (JFM) in an area with a five-decade-old self-organized community forest management system in Orissa, India. We ask a question that appears not to have been previously examined: What happens when JFM replaces an already existing community forest management arrangement? Our comparison of the JFM arrangement with the self-organized community forest management regime (pre- and post-2002 in a selected village) provides three conclusions: (1) The level of villager participation in forest management has declined, along with the erosion of the bundle of common rights held by them; (2) multiple institutional linkages between the village and outside agencies, and reciprocal relations with neighboring villages have been abandoned in favor of a close relationship with the Forestry Department; and (3) the administration of the forestry resource has become politicized. We conclude that the “one-size-fits-all” approach of the JFM, with its pre-packaged objectives and its narrow scope of forest management, is likely to limit experimentation, learning, and institutional innovation that characterizes community forest management.     

Impact of forest policies on timber production in India: a review

Until the 20th century, forest policies across the globe focused primarily on effective forest utilization for timber production. Subsequent loss of forest land prompted many countries to review and amend such policies, in an attempt to incorporate the principles of conservation and sustainable forest management. One of the countries to implement such changes was India, which introduced new policies, acts and programmes to regulate forest conversion and degradation, beginning in the 1980s. These policies, acts, and programmes included the Forest Conservation Act of 1980, the National Forest Policy of 1988 and the Hon. Supreme Court Order of 1996. All of these regulations affected the timber supply from government forest areas, and created a huge gap in timber supply and demand. Currently, this deficit is met through imports and trees outside forests (TOFs). Timber production from government forest areas is abysmally low (3.35% of total demand) compared to potential timber production from TOFs, which fulfil 45% of the total timber demand in India. This implies that TOFs have immense potential in meeting the growing timber demand; however, they have not been fully utilized due to discrepancies in state level TOFs’ policies. The present paper provides a review of different forest policies, acts and guidelines in relation to timber production in India, and provides specific recommendations in order to maximize timber production in the context of increasing demand for timber products.     

Opportunities and constraints for organizations to help sustain tropical forest resources

A large number of organizations make decisions that directly or indirectly affect tropical forests. The principal constraints that affect these organizations are (1) insufficient funds; (2) insufficient knowledge about the resources and appropriate technologies; (3) institutional, cultural, and political factors; (4) inadequate communication; and (5) contradictory efforts. Opportunities for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of these organizations include (1) increasing cooperation among US government agencies; (2) redirecting international organizations; (3) increasing coordination among organizations; (4) boosting support of nongovernmental organizations and universities; (5) encouraging responsible involvement by private corporations; (6) strengthening existing organizations; and (7) creating new organizations.This article is drawn from US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (1984), Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, chap. 5. Other articles drawn from the OTA report are Hyman (1984a and b) and Hyman and Ross-Sheriff (1984). A larger number of organizations with activities related to tropical forestry are briefly described in the background paper (US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment 1983).     

Foreign direct investment and institutional obstacles: The case of Russian forestry

This article examines why, in spite of vast forest resources, Russia has been unable to attract foreign investors into its forest industry. A survey of 32 influential Western European forest companies indicates that purely economic factors, such as labour or raw material costs, are not the main reasons these companies refrain from investing. Instead, the companies identify a number of institutional factors: ambiguous legal systems; difficulties in negotiating with local authorities; unfair tax enforcement; and general political instability as the main impediments to FDI in the sector. These factors have led many companies to abandon previously considered investments in Russia, and also to terminate existing business relationships with Russian partners. The survey results also indicate that, while many investors in forestry were attracted by the potential for a growing Russian market in the early days of the transition period, they have become more and more aware of the many institutional obstacles challenging growth in the sector. The article concludes, therefore, that FDI in the Russian forestry sector is likely to remain low until a fundamental change takes place in the legal and political systems.     

Implications of Land Use Changes on Carbon Dynamics and Sequestration—Evaluation from Forestry Datasets, India

Forests and soils are a major sink of carbon, and land use changes can affect the magnitude of above ground and below ground carbon stores and the net flux of carbon between the land and the atmosphere. Studies on methods for examining the future consequences of changes in patterns of land use change and carbon flux gains importance, as they provide different options for CO₂ mitigation strategies. In this study, a simulation approach combining Markov chain processes and carbon pools for forests and soils has been implemented to study the carbon flows over a period of time. Markov chains have been computed by converting the land use change and forestry data of India from 1997 to 1999 into a matrix of conditional probabilities reflecting the changes from one class at time t to another class time t+1. Results from Markov modeling suggested Indian forests as a potential sink for 0.94 Gt carbon, with an increase in dense forest area of about 75.93 Mha and decrease of about 3.4 Mha and 5.0 Mha in open and scrub forests, if similar land use changes that occurred during 1997–1999 would continue. The limiting probabilities suggested 34.27 percent as dense forest, 6.90 as open forest, 0.4 percent mangrove forest, 0.1 percent scrub and 58 percent as non-forest area. Although Indian forests are found to be a potential carbon sink, analysis of results from transition probabilities for different years till 2050 suggests that, the forests will continue to be a source of about 20.59 MtC to the atmosphere. The implications of these results in the context of increasing anthropogenic pressure on open and scrub forests and their contribution to carbon source from land use change and forestry sector are discussed. Some of the mitigation aspects to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from land use change and forestry sector in India are also reviewed in the study.     

Potential contribution of the forestry sector in Bangladesh to carbon sequestration

The Kyoto Protocol provides for the involvement of developing countries in an atmospheric greenhouse gas reduction regime under its Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Carbon credits are gained from reforestation and afforestation activities in developing countries. Bangladesh, a densely populated tropical country in South Asia, has a huge degraded forestland which can be reforested by CDM projects. To realize the potential of the forestry sector in developing countries for full-scale emission mitigation, the carbon sequestration potential of different species in different types of plantations should be integrated with the carbon trading system under the CDM of the Kyoto Protocol. This paper discusses the prospects and problems of carbon trading in Bangladesh, in relation to the CDM, in the context of global warming and the potential associated consequences. The paper analyzes the effects of reforestation projects on carbon sequestration in Bangladesh, in general, and in the hilly Chittagong region, in particular, and concludes by demonstrating the carbon trading opportunities. Results showed that tree tissue in the forests of Bangladesh stored 92tons of carbon per hectare (tC/ha), on average. The results also revealed a gross stock of 190tC/ha in the plantations of 13 tree species, ranging in age from 6 to 23 years. The paper confirms the huge atmospheric CO(2) offset by the forests if the degraded forestlands are reforested by CDM projects, indicating the potential of Bangladesh to participate in carbon trading for both its economic and environmental benefit. Within the forestry sector itself, some constraints are identified; nevertheless, the results of the study can expedite policy decisions regarding Bangladesh's participation in carbon trading through the CDM.     

Development,Malaria and Adaptation to Climate Change: A Case Study from India

India has reasons to be concerned about climate change. Over 650 million people depend on climate-sensitive sectors, such as rain-fed agriculture and forestry, for livelihood and over 973 million people are exposed to vector borne malarial parasites. Projection of climatic factors indicates a wider exposure to malaria for the Indian population in the future. If precautionary measures are not taken and development processes are not managed properly some developmental activities, such as hydro-electric dams and irrigation canal systems, may also exacerbate breeding grounds for malaria. This article integrates climate change and developmental variables in articulating a framework for integrated impact assessment and adaptation responses, with malaria incidence in India as a case study. The climate change variables include temperature, rainfall, humidity, extreme events, and other secondary variables. Development variables are income levels, institutional mechanisms to implement preventive measures, infrastructure development that could promote malarial breeding grounds, and other policies. The case study indicates that sustainable development variables may sometimes reduce the adverse impacts on the system due to climate change alone, while it may sometimes also exacerbate these impacts if the development variables are not managed well and therefore they produce a negative impact on the system. The study concludes that well crafted and well managed developmental policies could result in enhanced resilience of communities and systems, and lower health impacts due to climate change.     

National policies for biosphere greenhouse gas management: issues and opportunities

Biosphere greenhouse gas (GHG) management consists of preserving and enhancing terrestrial carbon pools and producing biomass as a fossil fuel substitute. The discussion of this topic has focused primarily on carbon-accounting and project-level issues, particularly relating to carbon sequestration as a source of emissions credits under the Kyoto Protocol. While international consensus on these matters is needed, this paper argues that an important domestic policy agenda also deserves attention. National policies for biosphere GHG management are necessary to bring about large-scale changes in land-use, forestry, and agricultural practices and can address some of the technical and policy issues that have proven to be particularly problematic from carbon-accounting and project-level perspectives. These policies should minimize land-use and resource-management conflicts, account for collateral benefits, and ensure institutional compatibility with existing resource-management regimes. Issues relating to project permanence, leakage, and transaction costs should also be addressed. A range of policy instruments should be used and biosphere GHG management should be one component of an integrated approach to environmental and resource management. Countries promoting biosphere GHG management as an important element of their climate change strategies should be developing these domestic policies to complement international negotiations and to demonstrate that carbon sequestration and biomass production can make an effective contribution to the stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations.     

Transport and Urban Air Pollution in India

The rapid growth in motor vehicle activity in India and other rapidly industrializing low-income countries is contributing to high levels of urban air pollution, among other adverse socioeconomic, environmental, health, and welfare impacts. This paper first discusses the local, regional, and global impacts associated with air pollutant emissions resulting from motor vehicle activity, and the technological, behavioral, and institutional factors that have contributed to these emissions, in India. The paper then discusses some implementation issues related to various policy measures that have been undertaken, and the challenges of the policy context. Finally, the paper presents insights and lessons based on the recent Indian experience, for better understanding and more effectively addressing the transport air pollution problem in India and similar countries, in a way that is sensitive to their needs, capabilities, and constraints.