地下水饮水安全指标体系构建及评价

提高饮水质量,保证饮水安全,已经成为全球关注的焦点。饮水安全评价是制定水安全保障体系和进行水安全决策的前提和依据。目前,由于饮水安全涉及水质、水量及饮水工程各个方面,难以通过单一指标来反映饮水安全的程。因此如何科学选定项目评价方法并切实指导工程建设实践,已经成为水利研究必须面对的重要课题。以银川平原为例,通过水文地质调查,从水源与人类健康角度,考虑地下水质、水量和地质防护性,构建了适合银川平原特点的饮水安全评价指标体系,并运用层次分析、迭置指数等评价方法,开展了地下水饮水安全评价。评价结果表明：山前洪积倾斜平原,地下水盖层厚度大,埋藏深,大于5 m,水质相对较好,矿化度小0.5 g·L-1,但水量补给有限,开发过程有必要控制开采量;河湖积平原二级阶地大部分地区,水位埋藏浅,小于1 m,蒸发作用强烈,水质及地表防护性能较差,锰、硬度、可溶解性固体、硫酸盐等指标均已超过三类水质标准,水资源可用作农田灌溉或通过改水措施等再利用,同时应防止三废排入;河湖积平原二级阶地北部、一级阶地及黄河东岸为地下水排泄、污水聚集或原生环境氟、硫酸根等元素高含量区域,水质极差,在该区域内应加强沟渠等排水设施的管理,控制化肥农药的施用量,必要时应采取去氟去盐等改水措施。     

岳城水库饮用水水源地安全保障达标现状及对策研究

岳城水库是华北地区重要饮用水水源地,根据水利部对饮用水水源地评价的要求,分别从水量达标建设、水质达标建设、监控体系达标建设及管理体系达标建设4个方面对岳城水库饮用水水源地达标建设现状进行了分析.结果表明,岳城水库饮用水水源地安全保障情况总体较好,评价等级为良,进一步分析了岳城水库管理中存在的主要问题及对策措施.     

松花江流域四大集中式饮用水水源地水质分析

随着经济发展,松花江流域水污染物排放量逐年增加,对该流域城市河段集中式饮用水水源地的水质现状进行研究,对保障人体健康具有重要意义.本文选取松花江流域哈尔滨市四方台和朱顺屯水源地、齐齐哈尔市嫩江浏园水源地、吉林市第二松花江水源地等四大集中式饮用水水源地作为研究对象,对其水质现状进行分析与评价.     

建立适合我国国情的饮用水水质指数

目前一般利用各指标合格率评价饮用水水质，由于指标繁杂，不利于消费者了解水质整体概况，也不利于对外发布公报。本文建议采用水质指数法来对饮用水水质进行综合评价。本文介绍了目前采用的水质指数的不同评价方法，综述了不同的水质指数的原理和计算方法，根据我国国情，对我国城市供水的饮用水水质指数进行了修正，首次在水质指数中增加了超标项目“惩罚项”。修正后的饮用水水质指数具有很强的科学性和可操作性，可以从整体上对饮用水水质进行综合评价。     

基于分形插值模型的平寨水库水质评价

平寨水库是黔中水利枢纽唯一源头水库,其水环境质量直接影响包括安顺和贵阳在内的整个黔中地区的农业灌溉和城市居民饮水安全.为了深入分析平寨水库的水环境质量状况,于2018年1月、5月、8月和11月对平寨水库7个监测断面水样进行采集,测定TP、TN、NH_3-N、COD和DO等5个监测指标,基于分形维数权重建立水质评价模型,对平寨水库水环境质量状况进行综合评价,并与模糊综合评价法和综合污染指数法进行对比分析.结果表明,平寨水库TP、NH_3-N和DO浓度均达到Ⅱ类水质标准,TN和COD浓度均超过Ⅱ类水质标准,主要为Ⅳ类和Ⅴ类,是主要污染因子;TP、NH_3-N和COD浓度在春季最高,TN浓度在秋季最高,DO浓度在冬季最低.平寨水库全年水质类别主要为Ⅲ类和Ⅳ类,在28个监测序列中,水质达到水功能区划标准的仅21.43%;平寨和跨桥断面水质最差,扈家河断面水质相对最好;春、秋季水质最差,冬、夏季次之.分形插值模型不仅能评价水质状况,而且能对同等级水质状况的优劣进行排序,具有较高的分类精度;其评价结果更客观、有效,在水质综合评价中具有良好的适用性.     

日本消毒副产物及其前体物的现状及研究进展

饮用水消毒是保证饮水安全的最重要措施,但是,消毒过程中产生的消毒副产物对人体健康存在潜在危害.日本在消毒副产物领域已开展了多年的深入研究.本文对日本在饮用水消毒副产物的种类、含量及消毒副产物前体物等方面的研究概况与饮水水质标准和前体物控制政策和技术方面的前沿情况进行了综述,并指出了未来可能需要关注的问题.     

江阴市地面水有机物污染评价

采用多污染物分析与评价方法对江阴地区地面水,包括长江水,锡澄运河水及江阴市自来水厂进、出水有机污染物的潜在危害进行了定量评价.结果表明,所有水体在生态上都是无害的,其总环境影响度(TAS)分别为0.260,0.263,0.173和0.136,远小于1.但从健康方面考虑,长江水,鍚澄运河水和水厂进水皆存在有机物的潜在危害,其TAS分别为1.149,1.392和1.165,超过1.饮用水的TAS为0.885,尚不存在潜在危害.此外,还对长江水因潮水涨落和季节改变引起的TAS变化进行了比较,证实了在涨落潮下,江水有机物对健康和生态的潜在危害基本相同,但枯水期的水质明显差于丰水期.对长江水、鍚澄运河水和水厂水源水,苯并噻唑.苯酚和硝基酚是最主要的危害健康物质,与饮用水不同,后者由于采用氯化处理,氯仿成为最主要的污染物之一,而苯并噻唑则退居次要地位.对所有水体,邻苯二甲酸酯是生态上唯一影响最大的有机物。最后,文章讨论了青阳农药厂排放有机污染物特别是苯并噻唑对长江水质的影响.     

斑马鱼幼鱼运动行为测试评价饮用水安全

饮用水安全直接关乎人类的健康与安全,当前迫切需要全新的毒性测试方法对饮用水的潜在人类健康风险进行全面、准确和灵敏的评估和预警。本研究以反渗透技术(RO)取代常用的固相萃取,分别浓缩饮用水厂的进厂水、出厂水和管网水进行毒性试验水样的前处理。反渗透技术前处理方法可以避免传统固相萃取方法中使用的有机溶剂对行为学测试体系的干扰。RO浓缩后的饮用水对斑马鱼胚胎进行持续暴露,采用Viewpoint行为测试软件量化分析出生后第6天(6 dpf)斑马鱼幼鱼的运动行为,选择运动距离和转向行为作为测试终点,分析进厂水、出厂水及管网水的潜在毒性及可能变化。结果表明,暴露在进厂水的幼鱼出现了明显的行为变化,尤其在较高浓度(20倍浓缩)暴露时,运动距离相比对照组显著减少,同时伴有剧烈的转向等异常行为;管网水对斑马鱼幼鱼行为存在一定程度的影响,而出厂水对幼鱼的运动行为没有显著影响。研究结果反映出当前饮用水厂深度处理工艺可以有效降低进厂水的潜在毒性和健康风险,但是经供水管网输送后,其水质可能发生了改变,导致管网水可能存在潜在的毒性。本研究所采用的反渗透技术前处理技术及斑马鱼幼鱼的运动行为学测试方法,可用于未来建立评估饮用水水质安全的早期预警系统。     

贵阳某农村饮用水源地水环境健康风险评价

在对贵阳市某农村饮用水源地水体中镉、砷和六价铬等13种有毒有害物质浓度调查的基础上,应用美国环保局(USEPA)推荐的健康风险评价模型对饮用水源地水体中有毒有害物质的健康风险进行初步评价。结果表明,该区农村饮用水源地水体通过饮水途径的化学致癌物健康风险数量级为10~(-7)~10~(-4),其中六价铬的致癌风险最大,为7.2×10~(-5)~3.7×10~(-4)a~(-1),均高于国际辐射防护委员会(ICRP)推荐的饮水途径最大可接受风险水平5.0×10~(-5)a~(-1)和USEPA推荐的最大可接受风险水平1.0×10~(-6)a~(-1)。另外,通过饮水途径的非致癌污染物健康风险数量级为10~(-11)~10~(-8),远低于ICRP及USEPA推荐的最大可接受风险水平。化学致癌物的风险值远高于非化学致癌物,前者约是后者的1 000倍,占个人年总健康风险值的99.9%。因此,该农村饮用水源地水体中六价铬污染应引起相关部门的重视,进行优先治理。     

饮用水水源水质安全监测预警技术发展综述

水是保障世界和平和安全的重要因素,水质安全问题频发引起人们的广泛关注。有毒有害化学物质的生产和使用是水体新兴污染物的主要来源。战争、恐怖活动和国际冲突也可能造成大范围水污染和卫生设施的严重破坏,进而造成比战争本身更大的灾难。落后的水质安全不能满足人民期待拥有更加绿色可持续的水生态环境和更加安全健康的饮用水的需求。如今国内外广泛使用的水质安全监测预警技术主要包括生物监测和理化监测,本文就水质安全监测预警技术的发展进行综述介绍,为水质安全精准监测和预警提供辩证借鉴。     

Geochemical Environment and Health Problems in China

China is a very large developing country covering vast territories and having a complex natural environment. It has an enormous population and numerous endemic diseases. The total population of China is 14 x 10(8) of which 3 x 10(3) live in endemic disease-affected areas and 0.48 x 10(3) suffer from these diseases. The distribution of the endemic diseases has obvious geographical characteristics. Among the most harmful and widely distributed of the endemic diseases are Kaschin-Beck disease, Keshan disease, iodine deficiency, endemic fluorosis and hepatic carcinoma. The geographical environments have a close relationship to endemic diseases and are influenced by climate, geology, landform, soil, food and drinking water. Drinking water is the key issue, since polluted water, or water lacking in or having an excess of certain minerals and elements, as well as water containing certain organic components, has been shown to be harmful to human health. Research has shown that some diseases can be reduced or eliminated by paying attention to the way drinking water is obtained, as well as by improving the nutritional values of the food by eliminating negative components. Fifty years of research has already gone into this subject and there is still much research to be done. This paper puts forth a model of health problems related to geographical environment and the importance of continued research in this field.     

Environmental change and vulnerability in the Usangu plain,southwestern Tanzania: Implications for sustainable development

Natural resources are important assets for sustainability of rural livelihoods and economic development. The objectives of the study were to assess linkage of environmental change to emerging water scarcity, livelihoods insecurity and decline in wildlife biodiversity and hydropower generation in the Great Ruaha ecosystem, and to discuss policy lessons for sustainable development. Literature survey, participatory assessments, collection of records from stakeholders, participatory observations and a questionnaire survey were used. Participatory assessment found that increasing water scarcity is associated with degradation of land, vegetation cover and change in rainfall intensity and duration. Rainfall change is supported by 83% of respondents and rainfall trends analysis. About 42% of variation in cereal production is described by the rainfall amount variability. Analysis of trends for per capita cereals production from district records showed a significant (p < 0.05) decline over the years. Changes in water flows in the Great Ruaha River have been evident since 1993, and have affected wildlife diversity in the Ruaha National Park and power generation from the Kidatu hydroelectric plant downstream. Human livelihood activities, exclusiveness, weak coordination and collaboration between sectors and institutions in policy formulation and implementation have played a role. The pro-poor policy formulation through integrated planning, strong coordination and collaboration is recommended for sustainable development.     

Monitoring,mapping and health risk assessment of fluoride in drinking water supplies in rural areas of Maku and Poldasht,Iran

The aim of this study was to investigate and determine fluoride concentrations in drinking water supplies in rural areas of Maku and Poldasht in West Azerbaijan Province, the northwest of Iran. Fluorosis risk assessment and characterization was also investigated. Fluoride concentrations mapping was accomplished by using the GIS system. Totally, 356 water samples, including one sample in each season, were collected from 89 water supplies providing water for 95 and 61 rural areas of Maku and Poldasht, respectively. According to the results, in Maku and Poldasht, 25 and 30 rural areas had contaminated water sources, respectively. Average annual fluoride concentrations ranged from 3.04 to 7.31 mg/l in the contaminated villages of Maku, which is about 2–4.8 times higher than the maximum standard level of the Iranian drinking water standard, and 4.52–8.21 mg/l in the contaminated areas of Poldasht, which is about 3–5.47 times higher than the maximum standard level. The maximum fluoride level was determined 11.12 mg/l and 10.98 mg/l in one of villages of Maku and Poldasht Counties in summer, respectively. Neither in Maku nor in Poldasht, water resources showed dental cavity risk, while dental fluorosis risk and skeletal fluorosis risk were very significant in some villages of both cities. Children were at most risk of fluorosis. New alternative water supplies for the contaminated villages if possible, consumption of bottled water and application of reverse osmosis are recommended as remedial actions in the contaminated areas.

     

广州市饮用水中挥发性有机物的研究

饮用水中的挥发性有机化合物（VOCs）来源于水源水受到的环境污染或是在净化消毒工艺处理工程中反应产生的副产物,可对人体健康造成极大的危害。改革开放以来,广州人口和经济得到突飞猛进的发展,也带来了包括饮用水安全在内的诸多严重的社会和环境问题。虽然饮用水中VOCs的研究已经得到越来越多的重视,但是目前对广州市饮用水中挥发性有机物的研究还鲜有报道。本文在广州市中心城区选取15个不同位置的采样点进行了自来水水样采集,并利用吹扫-捕集-气相色谱-质谱（GC-MS）联用系统分析技术测定水中 VOCs 的种类和三卤甲烷的质量浓度。结果表明,广州市中心城区的自来水中VOCs有20种,以三卤甲烷（THMs）和芳香烃类为主,占了所检出的物质总量的78%以上。THMs中四种化合物（氯仿、一溴二氯甲烷、二溴一氯甲烷、溴仿）的检出率达100%,总三卤甲烷的平均质量浓度为46.46μg· L-1,最大值为53.31μg· L-1,最小值39.91μg· L-1。根据2006版国家饮用水标准,四种三卤甲烷质量浓度均低于标准限值,符合标准要求。对市面上一般的瓶装水的研究发现,瓶装水中三卤甲烷的质量浓度非常低,总三卤甲烷平均质量浓度仅为1.47μg·L-1,约是自来水中质量浓度的1/30。为了解温度及煮沸对自来水中 THMs 质量浓度的影响,本研究设计了实验进行探究。结果发现加热至沸腾过程中,THMs质量浓度随温度升高而升高,而沸腾后THMs骤降,煮沸5 min可降低水中约95%的THMs,接近瓶装水中THMs质量浓度。     

Arsenic in groundwater in six districts of West Bengal,India

Arsenic in groundwater above the WHO maximum permissible limit of 0.05 mg l^–1 has been found in six districts of West Bengal covering an area of 34 000 km² with a population of 30 million. At present, 37 administrative blocks by the side of the River Ganga and adjoining areas are affected. Areas affected by arsenic contamination in groundwater are all located in the upper delta plain, and are mostly in the abandoned meander belt. More than 800 000 people from 312 villages/wards are drinking arsenic contaminated water and amongst them at least 175 000 people show arsenical skin lesions. Thousands of tube-well water in these six districts have been analysed for arsenic species. Hair, nails, scales, urine, liver tissue analyses show elevated concentrations of arsenic in people drinking arsenic-contaminated water for a longer period. The source of the arsenic is geological. Bore-hole sediment analyses show high arsenic concentrations in only few soil layers which is found to be associated with iron-pyrites. Various social problems arise due to arsenical skin lesions in these districts. Malnutrition, poor socio-economic conditions, illiteracy, food habits and intake of arsenic-contaminated water for many years have aggravated the arsenic toxicity. In all these districts, major water demands are met from groundwater and the geochemical reaction, caused by high withdrawal of water may be the cause of arsenic leaching from the source. If alternative water resources are not utilised, a good percentage of the 30 million people of these six districts may suffer from arsenic toxicity in the near future.     

A brief and critical review on hydrofluorosis in diverse species of domestic animals in India

India is one of the fluoride-endemic countries where the maximum numbers of ground or drinking water sources are naturally fluoridated. In India, a total of 23, out of 36 states and union territories have drinking water contaminated with fluoride in varying concentration. In the present scenario, especially in rural India, besides the surface waters (perennial ponds, dams, rivers, etc.), bore wells and hand pumps are the principal drinking water sources for domestic animals such as cattle (Bos taurus), water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), sheep (Ovis aries), goats (Capra hircus), horses (Equus caballus), donkeys (Equus asinus) and dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). Out of 23 states, 17 states, namely Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha (Orissa), Punjab, Rajasthan, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, have fluoride beyond the maximum permissible limit of 1.0 or 1.5 ppm in drinking water. This situation is a great concern for the animal health because fluoride is a slow toxicant and causes chronic diverse serious health hazards or toxic effects. Despite the fact that domestic animals are the basic income sources in rural areas and possess a significant contributory role not only in the agriculture sector but also in the strengthening of economy as well as in sustainable development of the country, research work on chronic fluoride intoxication (hydrofluorosis) due to drinking of fluoridated water in domestic animals rearing in various fluoride-endemic states is not enough as compared to work done in humans. However, some interesting and excellent research works conducted on different aspects of hydrofluorosis in domesticated animals rearing in different states are briefly and critically reviewed in the present communication. Author believes that this review paper not only will be more useful for researchers to do some more advance research work on fluoride-induced toxicosis in different species of animals but will also be helpful in the making of health policy for domestic animals at state and national level for the mitigation of hydrofluorosis in India.     

Arsenism Clinical Stages and their Relation with Hair Arsenic Concentration of Residents of Bayinmaodao Rural District, Inner Mongolia, China

The clinical skin lesions of arsenism in men and women in Bayinmaodao rural district in Inner Mongolia, Peoples Republic of China, have been examined by doctors, and their hair and drinking water samples analysed for arsenic by hydride generation and ICP-AES. Altogether 311 arsenism patients with a 15.53% prevalence rate for the district were recorded. The disease prevalence rate was positively related to population, age, and their exposure to elevated arsenic concentrations in the drinking water from 1983 when new wells were dug and drinking of surface water was abandoned. Hyperkeratosis was the most serious skin lesion with the highest occurrence rate, then depigmentation and pigmentation in decreasing order. With increasing severity of the disease, ranging from skin lesion with single hyperkeratosis 1° to hyperkeratosis 3° with depigmentation 3° and pigmentation 3°, the results showed that arsenic concentrations in head hair had increased. Arsenic concentrations in hair were positively correlated with the arsenic concentrations in drinking water obtained from local wells.     

Health Risks Associated with Contamination of Groundwater by Abandoned Mines Near Twisp in Okanogan County, Washington, USA

Abandoned mines are known to contaminate private drinking water wells with toxic metals and arsenic (As). Little attention is given, however, to sites in rural areas with low population densities where natural, geogenic sources of contaminants might also occur. This study measured arsenic and trace element exposure among residents consuming water from wells adjacent to abandoned mines near Twisp, in Okanogan County, Washington, USA, estimated the risk of adverse health effects, and considered the degree of uncertainty associated with the assessed risk. Water samples were collected between October 1999 and June 2001. Average As concentrations ranged from <1 to 298 microg L(-1), lead (Pb) ranged from 0 to 94 microg L(-1), cadmium (Cd) 0-5 microg L(-1), and selenium (Se) 0-390 microg L(-1). Concentrations varied seasonally with maximum concentrations occurring in conjunction with snow-melt. The calculated risk of mortality from cancer following exposure to As at average concentrations as low as 8 microg L(-1) was greater than one in 10,000. Additional noncarcinogenic risks are associated with exposure to As, Cd, Pb and Se. A potentially affected population, estimated to be between 1000 and 1287 residents, live within a 6.5-km (4-mile) radius of the study site. This study emphasises the need to test drinking water wells in the vicinity of abandoned mines during times of maximum snow-melt to determine the extent of risk to human health. Residents drinking water from wells tested in this study who want to reduce the estimated carcinogenic risk and the noncarcinogenic hazard quotient should consider treating their water or find alternative sources.     

Distribution and Risk Assessment of Fluoride in Drinking Water in the West Plain Region of Jilin Province, China

The west plain region of Jilin province of northeast China is one of the typical endemic fluorosis areas caused by drinking water for many years. Investigations of hydrogeological and ecoenvironmental conditions as well as endemic fluorosis were conducted in 1998. Results show that the ground water, especially, the water in the unconfined aquifer is the main source of drinking water for local residents. The fluoride concentration in groundwater in the unconfined aquifers is higher than that in the confined aquifer in the west plain of Jilin province. The fluoride concentration in the unconfined aquifer can be used to classify the plain into fluoride deficient area, optimum area and excess area, which trend from west to east. High fluoride (>1.0 mg L(-1)) in drinking water resulted in dental and skeletal fluorosis in local residents (children and pregnant women). There exists a positive correlation between fluoride concentration in the drinking water and the morbidities of endemic fluorosis disease (r1 = 0.781, r2 = 0.872). Health risks associated with fluoride concentration in drinking water are assessed. It has been determined that fluoride concentration in excess of 1.0 mg L(-1) exposes residents to high health risks based on risk identification. The study area is classified into five health risk classes as shown in Figure 4. The risk indexes of this area more than 1.0 are accounted for 68% of the total west plain region.     

Inorganic chemicals in domestic water of the United Arab Emirates

The concentration of selected inorganic chemicals was determined for 396 samples of bottled water, desalinated water, and groundwater used for drinking and domestic purposes in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The objective of this study was to compare the concentrations of inorganic chemicals in different domestic water types used in the UAE with the World Health Organization (WHO) limits for drinking water. Results of the present study revealed a wide variation in the concentrations of major, minor, and trace inorganic chemicals in domestic water of the UAE. For example, the bottled water sold for drinking is depleted in major ions and the total dissolved solids (TDS) in some brands do not exceed 100 mg/l. On the other hand, some of the domestic water used may contain as much as 3,000 mg/l TDS, which is above the WHO recommended limit for drinking water (500–1,500 mg/l TDS). Similarly, while bottled water is almost free of trace ions and minor constituents, some natural groundwater may have concentrations higher than the WHO recommended limits for drinking water. The cause of this variation is related to the different water sources and the large number of companies producing and distributing drinking and domestic water. Moreover, it is clear that the current controls on domestic water quality in some areas, namely conformance of pH and electrical conductivity measurements with prescribed ranges of values, are currently inadequate. These two parameters are not enough to judge if water is suitable for drinking or not and some consumers may receive domestic water of uncertain quality.