THE MEASUREMENT OF IMPACTS IN SMALL WATERSHEDS FOR FLOOD CONTROL1

ABSTRACT: An analogue method of ex post evaluation is proposed as a method of measuring the effectiveness of small watershed projects in obtaining flood control and economic benefits. Two watersheds were compared on a “with vs. without” project basis by both direct and indirect measurement of economic benefits. Direct measurements indicated that small watershed flood control projects did not generate the expected economic benefits. However, the indirect measurements of the same watersheds using land value enhancement as a surrogate suggested that the expected economic benefits were reflected in differential land values. The economic efficiency of small watershed projects should be measured ex ante and ex post on a “with vs. without” project basis rather than on a “before vs. after” basis whether using direct or surrogate variables.     

MEASUREMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL TRADE-OFFS AND PUBLIC POLICY: A CASE STUDY1

ABSTRACT: The search for an adequate methodology to quantify environmental trade-offs led to a simulation technique, the Priority Evaluator Technique (PET). The PET was applied to determine values and trade-off preferences for environmental variables related to a proposed reservoir project. The PET simulates real world situations and allows the respondents to evaluate their preferences within a fixed cost framework. It systematically checks the respondents's perception of the existing conditions and compares the changes sought. From the responses obtained via interviewing, one can establish the extent to which respondents are satisfied with the prevailing conditions, the magnitude and direction of changes sought, the quality trade-offs, and the relative value of different situations. The PET is flexible and can accommodate alternative planning decisions, prices, incomes, and end factors. The promise shown by this application of the PET should encourage further exploration and evaluation.     

QUALITY OF RUNOFF FROM MINNESOTA PEATLANDS: II. A METHOD FOR ASSESSING MINING IMPACTS1

ABSTRACT The impacts of milled peat mining on runoff quality in northern Minnesota were determined using a multiple watershed approach. The frequency distributions of water quality constituents were used to detect whether runoff from a mined bog differed from that of 15 unmined (control) bogs. Peat mining increased water temperature, suspended sediment, specific conductance and concentrations of acidity, iron, sodium, and nitrogen species, although drinking water standards were not exceeded (α= 0.05). The method presented may be applicable for other nonpoint pollution investigations.     

ENERGY,ENVIRONMENTAL, AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF SOME RECENT ALBERTA WATER RESOURCES PROJECTS1

ABSTRACT: Most of us are aware, or feel we are aware, of the impacts of major water resources projects on our lives. “Dam-lovers” note the life-saving flood-risk reduction and recreational benefits of a proposed reservoir, while “dam-haters” bemoan the future drowning out of the wildlife habitat of its river valley, and the recreational disbenefits to stream (as opposed to lake) fishermen. Water supply projects can often be given such a revered status, assuming the “obvious” tenet that water, air, food, and shelter are basic requirements of decent living, that the economic viability of the project may not even be assessed. Water resources planners are supposed to impartially weigh the environmental and economic benefits, and especially now, the energy implications of all proposed water projects, but many times the partial views of political or public advocates may be hard to ignore. The assumptions used in the planning of four recent water projects in the Province of Alberta will be presented and some revisions suggested which materially affect their Benefit/Cost ratios. In one project that is still in the public hearing stage, the economic analysis will be revealed, indicating that the original B/C ratio of about 1.6:1 might be more realistically placed at 0.6:1. In another project just completed, the apparent lack of an economic or energy analysis that has resulted in a perpetual and unnecessary energy load on the province, will be described.     

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY IMPACTS OF A WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT1

ABSTRACT: At a time in history when water resource development in the United States is being condemned as both economically inefficient and an environmental disaster, perhaps economists need to look back at previous development to see what the fruits of water development (be they sweet or sour) have been. The Boise Project of south-western Idaho is 70 years old and to some people it represents a gross error in resource use, while to others it represents a means of livelihood and well being. A recent research project at the University of Idaho attempted to measure not only the direct economic income benefits of the project (from irrigation), but also the indirect or secondary income benefits (from the food processing industry). Periodic regional input-output tables were constructed to assess the income generated from irrigation and food processing over the period from 1946 to 1970. Input-output analysis allowed researchers to evaluate the direct and indirect impacts of both the irrigation sector and the food processing sector and to compare their growth over time.     

THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION IN THE URBAN FRINGE: A TEN-YEAR COMPARISON1

ABSTRACT This paper examines the social impact of reservoir construction on a rural community group located in the urban fringe of a major metropolitan area in central Ohio. The study data were collected at three intervals over a ten-year period (1970, 1974, 1980). Evaluation of resident opinions in the affected community revealed significant attitude differences over time for four of the five variables measured. The findings revealed that the study group desired more social stability but had accommodated the changes experienced to date. Responses to the attitude scales showed that the people in the study group were well integrated and were closely identified with each other at all three test periods. Attitudes toward the lake project were significantly more positive over time, and in 1980 the collective community group held a basically neutral attitude about the lake. The development agency was also perceived more positively over time.     

IMPLICATIONS OF A DRAWDOWN OF THE SNAKE-COLUMBIA RWER ON BARGE TRANSPORTATION1

ABSTRACT: The listing of the Snake-Columbia River salmon under the Endangered species Cut will lead to a set of river management changes aimed at species recovery. One measure almost certain to be implemented is a periodic river drawdown. A drawdown will speed fish migration downriver but will also temporarily close the river to barge transportation. Grain shippers in the region rely on the barge carriage to move a significant share of annual production to export elevators on the Lower Columbia. A number of other bulk commodities utilize barges as well. This study outlines the aggregate and distributional economic implications of a suspension of barge transportation resulting from a river drawdown.     

THE COSTS OF CONFLICTING ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: A CASE STUDY IN MILWAUKEE1

ABSTRACT: The history of the Milwaukee water pollution abatement program is examined as a case study to investigate the costs of conflicting environmental policy. The recent U.S. Supreme Court decision concerning the Milwaukee case is described as a milestone in U.S. water pollution abatement policy which will help preclude the type of environmental policy conflict which has been found to be so costly to Milwaukee. The implications to U.S. water pollution abatement policy of the 13-year history of conflict in Milwaukee are presented.     

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF TAILINGS DISPERSAL FROM A URANIUM MINE USING TOXICITY TESTING PROTOCOLS1

ABSTRACT: Toxicity testing is a means of establishing the environmental risk of a uranium tailings release. It is valuable in designing tailings containment structures because it assists in setting acceptable levels of risk for the design. This paper presents details of toxicity tests of the tailings from Ranger Uranium Mine, Northern Territory, Australia. The results suggest that the non-radiological toxicity of the tailings is low. The environmental risk of a tailings release is more likely to be related to the physical impacts of the tailings, including infilling of billabongs and changes in the sedimentology of riparian ecosystems rather than their biogeochemical impact. Two major results were: (1) water from treatment with washed tailing fines were not toxic to Hydra viridissima, and (2) mixtures of washed tailings fines and natural floodplain sediment (overlying water or elutriates) were not toxic to Hydra viridissima or Moinodaphnia macleayi.     

THE STATE OF LOUISIANA SUPERPORT AUTHORITY ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION PLAN – OIL AND OYSTERS1

ABSTRACT: The State of Louisiana created in 1972 the Deep Draft Harbor and Terminal Authority (commonly called Superport Authority) to plan, promote, and develop a deepwater (crude oil) terminal off the coast of Louisiana, and empowered it to establish an Authority development program to promote the economic and social welfare of its citizens. Simultaneously, the Authority was also charged with developing an environmental protection plan to preserve the environmental values of Louisiana's unique coastal marshland while permitting beneficial industrial and economic development. Consequently, in January 1974, an Environmental Protection Plan was promulgated, consisting of a series of regulations, design standards, and operating procedures aimed specifically at protecting the fragile estuarine environment of coastal Louisiana during the construction and ultimate operation of the superport. The paper describes the development of the Superport Authority's Environmental Protection Plan and the current status of the superport project.     

THE NEED FOR A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH IN THE MANAGEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES1

ABSTRACT Environmental resources can be managed properly only by adopting a comprehensive approach. The whole environment must be considered as a single system, and prior to any action, all types of environmental impacts caused by it should be studied in detail. This paper underlines the close relationship between different environmental problems, analyzes existing management patterns, and proposes new alternatives whenever applicable. The different constraints, which have to be considered in the decision-making process while developing a plan, are also discussed. It is concluded that efforts neglecting the interaction among different aspects of the environment do not upgrade the quality of water, air, and land to any appreciable degree.     

APPLICATION OF THE DR3M WATERSHED MODEL ON A SMALL URBAN BASIN1

ABSTRACT: Data collected at a 79-acre urban watershed in Albuquerque, New Mexico, were used to calibrate and verify the Distributed Routing Rainfall-Runoff Model, a parametric watershed model. Standard errors of estimate for the 38 calibration storms were 33 percent and 38 percent, respectively, for volumes and peaks; and for the 46 verification storms were 29 percent and 37 percent, respectively, for volumes and peaks. Correlation coefficients for peaks were 0.8 and 0.95, respectively, for calibration and verification storms.     

A PRELIMINARY QUANTIFICATION OF THE IMPACTS OF ASPEN TO CONIFER SUCCESSION ON WATER YIELD- II. MODELING RESULTS1

ABSTRACT: Heat pulse velocity techniques were developed for effective monitoring of water movement in aspen (Populus tremuloides), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), and Englemann spruce (Picea engelmannif). Water loss was monitored in replicated trees of each species for one year. These data were used to modify the plant activity index (a reflection of the ability of plants to transpire water at various times during a year) and the crop coefficient (a reflection of differences in consumptive use rates of water by different vegetation types when all other factors are held constant) for each species within the model ASPCON, a deterministic, lumped-parameter model describing the hydrology of aspen to conifer succession. Results of the modeling in dicate 18.6 cm net loss of moisture available for streamflow when spruce replaced aspen, and a loss of 7.2 cm when fir forests replaced aspen. The aspen to conifer successional trend appears, therefore, to be significantly reducing water yields in the western United States.     

THE EFFECTS OF A MOVING RAINSTORM ON DIRECT RUNOFF PROPERTIES1

ABSTRACT: The effects of a moving rainstorm on flood runoff characteristics were investigated. A flood hydrograph simulation model called “FH-Model” and a natural watershed were used. A hypothetical rainstorm of 50 years recurrence interval, 75 mm depth, and 4 hours duration was used to show the effects of velocity and direction of the moving rainstorm on the runoff characteristics. Compared with an equivalent stationary rainstorm (ESRS), the peak flow caused by a rainstorm moving in a downstream direction with a speed equal to channel velocity, V, was 27.5 percent higher and the peak flow caused by the same rainstorm moving in an upstream direction was 21.7 percent smaller. These percentages reduced to 10.5 percent and 8.6 percent for storms moving downstream and upstream, respectively, at three times the channel velocity, 3V. There were negligible differences in the time of peak, T_p between runoff caused by storms moving downstream and runoff produced by ESRS. However, T_p for a storm moving upstream at V velocity was 82 percent higher than that produced by ESRS, but was reduced to 27 percent higher when the storm velocity was 3V.     

A PRELIMINARY QUANTIFICATION OF THE IMPACTS OF ASPEN TO CONIFER SUCCESSION ON WATER YIELD - I. HEAT PULSE METHODOLOGY FOR MODEL CALIBRATION1

ABSTRACT: Twenty-six aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), 20 subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarps (Hook.) Nutt.), and 20 Engelmann spruce (Pices engelmanil (Parry) Engelm.) of various sizes were cut under water and suspended in permanent reserviors at a northern Utah site. The reservoirs were asealed so that all water loss was due to consumption by the trees. Sap velocities, as computed from heat pulse velocities, were related to conducting areas of the tree trunks. Computed transpiration volumes were then correlated with actual water losses from the reservoirs. Coefficients of determination (R²) of 0.87, 0.86, and 0.82 were obtained for the fir, aspen, and sprucs, respectively. Reservoir water loss for each species for each season was then used to adjust a plant activity index for computing transpiration within ASPCON, a model describing the hydrology of aspen to conifer succession. The plant activity index reflects the variation in the capability of a plant community to transpire water over the year. Assumptions and limitations of the heat pulse velocity technique are also outlined.     

THE INFLUENCE OF (x,y) UNCERTAINTY ON PREDICTION ERROR AND CONTOUR LINES FROM A THREE-DIMENSIONAL SURFACE1

ABSTRACT: In geohydrology, three-dimensional surfaces are typically represented as a series of contours. Water levels, saturated thickness, precipitation, and geological formation boundaries are a few examples of this practice. These surfaces start as point measurements that are then analyzed to interpolate between the known point measurements. This first step typically creates a raster or a set of grid points. In modeling, subsequent processing uses these to represent the shape of a surface. For display, they are usually converted to contour lines. Unfortunately, in many field applications, the (x, y) location on the earth's surface is much less confidently known than the data in the z dimension. To test the influence of (x, y) locational accuracy on z dimension point predictions and their resulting contours, a Monte Carlo study was performed on water level data from northwestern Kansas. Four levels of (x, y) uncertainty were tested ranging in accuracy from one arc degree-minute (± 2384 feet in the x dimension and ± 3036 feet in the y dimension) to Global Positioning Systems (GPS) accuracy (± 20 feet for relatively low cost systems). These span the range of common levels of locational uncertainty in data available to hydrologists in the United States. This work examines the influence that locational uncertainty can have on both point predictions and contour lines. Results indicate that overall mean error exhibits a small sensitivity to locational uncertainty. However, measures of spread and maximum errors in the z domain are greatly affected. In practical application, this implies that estimates over large regions should be asymptotically consistent. However, local errors in z can be quite large and increase with (x, y) uncertainty.