美国防洪政策演变

回顾了近３００年来美国防洪战略转移的历史进程。美国陆军工程兵团曾根据国家防洪与发展航运的需要,实施“堤防万能”的防洪政策,然而,１９２７年的大洪水冲毁了“堤防万能”的神话,迫使国会通过１９２８年的防洪法,进行水库、行洪区、分洪区与堤防协调防洪。随着联邦洪水及其它灾害救济费用的不断攀升,促使美国颁布１９６８年的洪水保险法与１９７３年的洪水灾害防御法,实行洪水风险区划与土地利用规划,以减轻洪水灾害。１     

Urban flooding in Australia: Policy development and implementation

This paper presents a review of Australian urban riverine flooding. By world standards the Australian flood problem is relatively small, though there are pockets of development subject to regular severe inundation. In the past, government response to flooding was ad hoc and characterized by structural adjustments. The 1970s and 1980s, however, have seen a major shift in approach. The new approach emphasizes resource management rather than construction, and consists of the announcement of policies, enactment of enabling legislation, and the introduction of procedures to help ensure that the widest range of flood damage reduction measures are considered. The changes are evident at both the federal and state levels of government.
Though problems remain, particularly at the local government level, where ultimate responsibility for policy implementation generally rests, the authors feel there are good grounds for optimism. Some suggestions for future policy are offered and the importance of public safety is stressed.     

中国实行洪水保险的可行性研究

在回顾洪水保险实施现状的基础上，指出了我国洪水保险与世界洪水保险的差距，根据我国洪水灾害的特点和我国经济体制的特点，提出了符合我国国情的洪水保险措施：建立洪水保险准备金是进行洪水保险的前提，洪水保险的特殊性决定了洪水保险不可能是个营利性的保险，因此要保证洪水保险的正常运行必须有社会和国家的扶持，洪水保险机构应按流域设立，中国洪水灾害发生的空间特点决定了洪水保险机构只能按流域设置，洪水灾害发生的时间特点决定了洪水保险的对象必须是固定资产，而不应该是流动资产，遭受洪水灾害影响最大的是农田，因此农田应该是洪水保险的对象，不应该是种植在农田里的农作物，另外可以通过农业保险对不同农作物进行保险，洪水保险需要洪水风险的分析和研究作技术支撑，没有科学的洪水风险分析，洪水保险很难顺利进行，加强与洪水保险有关的各方面法律法规的建立，在洪水保险法中明确界定洪水保险的保险对象，明确保险双方的义务和权利。     

Policy options for managing flood insurance

In much of the developed world, private sector insurance plays an important but often underappreciated role in the management of natural disasters. Insurance works by spreading individual and independent risks across all policyholders. This notion succeeds for uncorrelated risks such as theft and motor accidents, but is problematic where risks are highly correlated in space and time, as in the case of natural hazards. Insurers transfer much of this risk to international reinsurers who are guided by the principle that natural catastrophes in different parts of the world are uncorrelated. Global diversification allows reinsurers to confer to direct insurers the same assurance that insurers offer their policyholders. This paper outlines these principles and poses questions as to how a government might respond when insurers assess some risks as uninsurable. It considers a range of policy options including some that seek to avoid situations where interference by governments in the marketplace has proved unhelpful. A key paradigm is that insurance premiums should reflect actual risk in order to encourage homeowners, planners and government decision makers to reduce risks. While our focus is riverine flood risk, the principles can be generalized to a wide range of natural hazards.     

洪水风险分析的研究进展与展望

我国洪涝灾害频繁,损失极大,引人注目。洪水的风险分析工作是实施非工程措施,从而科学有效地防洪减灾的前提和基础。在概括系统风险定义和来源的基础上,对洪水风险分析的研究现状作了评述。洪水风险分析的研究方法已从直接积分法、蒙特卡罗法、均值一次两阶矩法,发展到改进一次两阶矩法、二次矩法和JC法等。综述了洪水风险分析的研究成果,同时建议：（1）明确并统一风险分析的内涵;（2）开展“风险分析的风险”的研究;（3）将熵理论引入到风险分析之中;（4）拓展风险分析的基本理论和研究方法,如应用模糊信息优化处理技术、灰色系统、未确知数学等。     

Insurance and flood risk reduction in Ghana: do insurers penalise homeowners who take precautionary measures?

Today, many advocate insurance as a tool for coping with natural disasters. Beyond providing prompt financial relief to victims of disasters, insurance can also incentivise individuals to invest in preventive measures if insurers reward such efforts with reduced premiums. However, insurers might be unable to reward investments in precautionary measures with lower premiums if they are ill-informed about individual-level risks. Here, we explore how Ghanaian home insurers respond to investments in flood risk reduction by asking them to quote premiums for four identical buildings; two had investments in flood risk reduction, while the other two had none. We find that insurers did not reward investments in risk reduction, with some charging higher premiums for elevated buildings, suggesting they have interpreted such preventive measures as a sign of high flood risk. This failure to reward investments in precautionary measures may discourage insured homeowners from investing in risk reduction.     

Repetitive flood victims and acceptance of FEMA mitigation offers: an analysis with community-system policy implications

Of all natural disasters, flooding causes the greatest amount of economic and social damage. The United States' Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) uses a number of hazard mitigation grant programmes for flood victims, including mitigation offers to relocate permanently repetitive flood loss victims. This study examines factors that help to explain the degree of difficulty repetitive flood loss victims experience when they make decisions about relocating permanently after multiple flood losses. Data are drawn from interviews with FEMA officials and a survey of flood victims from eight repetitive flooding sites. The qualitative and quantitative results show the importance of rational choices by flood victims in their mitigation decisions, as they relate to financial variables, perceptions of future risk, attachments to home and community, and the relationships between repetitive flood loss victims and the local flood management officials who help them. The results offer evidence to suggest the value of a more community-system approach to FEMA relocation practices.     

Is there a trade-off between households’ precautions,mitigations and public protection for flood risk?

This paper evaluates willingness-to-pay (WTP) for flood insurance and floodgate installation in Tainan, Taiwan, and finds that household flood precaution (observing the water level) has a minor effect in terms of increasing the WTP for flood insurance, rather than decreasing it. The reason for this is that people who have public flood protection nearby do not lower their WTP for floodgate and insurance, and those who live near the water source of floods and exhibit precautionary behavior have higher risk perceptions and intend to pay more. The adopted mitigation (having sandbags or other barriers) will not affect the intention to further mitigate or buy insurance. This also means that adverse selection in relation to flood insurance is not serious in the flood-prone area of Tainan. Households may be aware of the limitation of public flood protection though the precautionary behavior, and found that flood insurance can compensate for most of the flood damage.     

“历史模型”与灾害研究

灾害研究涉及多学科的交叉领域．水灾“历史模型”的研究方法是循社会科学的历史科学与自然科学的水利学科相结合的研究途径．将“历史模型”引人灾害研究．增强了研究与自然环境和社会经济密切相关的灾害问题的能力．本文论述了“历史模型”方法及其在灾害问题研究中的应用．     

An analysis of the causes and circumstances of flood disaster deaths

The objective of this paper is to investigate and to improve understanding of the causes and circumstances of flood disaster deaths. A standardised method of classifying flood deaths is proposed and the difficulties associated with comparing and assessing existing information on flood deaths are discussed. Thirteen flood cases from Europe and the United States, resulting in 247 flood disaster fatalities, were analysed and taken as indicative of flood disaster deaths. Approximately two-thirds of the deaths occurred through drowning. Thus, a substantial number of flood disaster fatalities are not related to drowning. Furthermore, males are highly vulnerable to dying in floods and unnecessary risk-taking behaviour contributes significantly to flood disaster deaths. Based on these results, recommendations are made to prevent loss of life in floods. To provide a more solid basis for the formulation of prevention strategies, better systematic recording of flood fatalities is suggested, especially those caused by different types of floods in all countries.     

试论洪涝对水稻的影响

洪涝灾害是我国主要的农业气象灾害之一，水稻遭受洪涝灾害的概率较大，研究洪涝对水稻的影响具有重要的意义。通过现场试验，对水稻不同生长阶段遭受洪涝灾害的影响和不同温度下遭受淹浸后的影响进行了研究，并用数理统计方法对水稻遭受淹浸后，其产量的一系列变化作了定量的分析。     

长江荆江分蓄洪区历史演变、前景和风险管理

依据社会经济统计数据、水文资料、遥感影像信息和实地调查资料，分析了荆江分蓄洪区在历史演变过程中形成的分洪与发展的矛盾及其在未来长江流域防洪体系中的重要作用，指出其风险管理的必要性。运用基于GIS栅格数据的二维水动力洪水动态演进模型，对荆江分蓄洪区1954年的分洪过程进行了模拟和验证，模拟了不同分洪规划方案下的洪水淹没范围，水深和水位，并结合现阶段社会经济发展情况，定量估算了农户和农业的分洪可能损失。在分洪损失评估基础上提出了荆江分蓄洪区引导人口合理发展、促进土地有效利用、开展防洪教育、实施洪水保险和确保安全运用预案等减轻洪水损失提高运用机率的洪水风险管理初步方案。     

Willingness to pay for agricultural flood insurance in the Mekong River Delta

Increasing urbanization and industrial development upstream of the Mekong River Delta of Vietnam (MRD) including the construction of a series of dams for hydroelectricity generation is changing the downstream risk of flooding. Concerns about the likely influence of global climate change and rising sea levels add further uncertainty to this risk that threatens the livelihood of farmers. With this in mind and in view of the under-developed state of the market for crop insurance in the MRD, we survey rice growers to explore their willingness-to-pay (WTP) for crop insurance by using a choice experiment. The experimental design comprised five attributes, including the type of peril covered – riverine flooding (flooding); flooding triggered by tidal regimes (inundation); or flooding, inundation and wind damage – type of provider; extent of cover and deductible and premium. Two hundred and twenty-six rice-growing farmers were surveyed with each farmer responding to six different choices. Our study shows that WTPs for an insurance plan covering a loss up to 2 million VND/1000m²/farming season and having a deductible of 25% of the potential (profit) crop value varied between 200,000 and 500,000?VND/1000m² (1USD?=?22,550 Vietnamese Dong – VND) for each rice growing season, implying a potential market for crop insurance.     

The consequences and policy implications of urban encroachment into flood-risk areas: the case of Ibadan

Urban encroachment on floodplains has exacerbated flood disasters owing to the reduction in the floodplain’s capacity to mitigate flooding, thereby bringing more settlements and people at flood risk. This study examined the consequences and policy implications of urban encroachment into Ibadan’s flood-risk areas. The survey-based study relied on primary and secondary data, with multistage sampling procedures selecting 15% of the flood-affected buildings in 2011, from which a structured questionnaire was administered to 402 households. The study revealed that the institutional arrangements with respect to responsibilities, regulations and control of urban floodplains were fragmented and non-participatory. At least 62% of all the affected buildings encroached into the statutory setbacks to rivers. Household property lost/damaged included domestic goods (75%), domestic animals and pets (60%), working instruments/machines (31%), the source of domestic water (34%) and vehicles (29%). Strong direct correlations were found between the urban and peri-urban communities in (1) the number of damaged/lost property and (2) the number of households that suffered health-related challenges. The paper recommends that the overall co-ordination of flood management activities be entrusted to an institution that can assume responsibility for legal, technical, administrative and financial matters related to urban planning and flood-risk management.     

巨灾保险下减灾积极性的影响因素及激励措施——基于美国巨灾保险项目的经验

讨论了保险的损失补偿职能和防灾减灾功能的关系,分析了巨灾保险框架下影响被保险人、保险人和其他利害方减灾积极性的多种因素,并基于美国的实践经验,从巨灾保险制度自身设计、政府支持和社会其他利害方的配合这三个角度剖析了调动防灾减灾积极性的各种手段和政策措施。这些经验对我国巨灾保险体系的构建具有一定的借鉴意义。研究结论表明,在合理的制度下,巨灾保险将发挥重要的防灾减灾功能。     

Models of best practice in flood risk communication and management

Risk communication plays an increasingly central role in flood risk management, but there is a variety of conflicting advice about what does – and should – get transmitted, why, how, and to whom. The aim of this paper is to elucidate the underlying normative and conceptual models on which those competing assessments of ‘good’ risk communication depend. To that end, the paper identifies four broad models, or approaches, to risk communication: a risk message model of information transfer; a risk instrument model of behavioural change; a risk dialogue model of participatory deliberation; and a risk government model of self-regulation and normalization. These models differ in their theoretical and disciplinary origins and associated philosophical and political commitments, and consequently they define the basic purpose, practice, and future prospects of flood risk communication in quite different ways. Unless these different models of ‘good’ risk communication are acknowledged and understood, efforts to identify best practice for flood risk management are likely to produce inconsistent, if not contradictory, recommendations.     

中国与荷兰洪水风险分析方法的比较研究

基于洪水风险的定义,从洪灾发生概率、洪灾后果评估、风险评价指标和防洪标准经济优化决策原则等方面阐述了中荷两国在洪水风险分析研究方面的异同,初步分析了存在差别的原因以及两种方法的特点.在分别应用中国和荷兰现有风险评估方法分析安庆市堤防圈的洪水风险的基础上,探讨了将两国的风险分析方法进行整合的思路.算例表明,将堤防的工程风险与洪水本身出现的水文风险相结合,并考虑在不同洪水位下损失的差异的方法是与洪灾发生机理相符,综合考虑了各种不确定因素的、切合我国洪灾特点的一种值得进一步深入研究的新方法.