On “China-measures related to the exportation of various raw materials” case in terms of DSB’s interpretations

The Appellate Body report in January 2012 had supported the decision of Panel in the “China-measures related to the exportation of various raw materials” case (WT/DS394,395,398) and affirmed that China’s restrictions (such as tariffs and quota measures) on the exportation of raw materials violated rules put forth by the WTO, which were required to be modified. In this case China’s right to invoke Article 20 of GATT1994 (“general exception”) to justify its exemption from the guidelines in Article 11.3 of the WTO Accession Protocol was denied by the Panel and the Appellate Body. This was due to the fact that the phrasing in Article 11.3 of Protocol failed to mention “GATT.” This was the consequence of the two interpretation approaches the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) adopted – a narrow textual interpretation and a subjective presumption of “legislative silence.” The inappropriate use of the two methods of interpretation lead to an imbalance between the right and obligation of China under the additional obligations that were imposed upon China by the WTO, which create a negative impact on China’s rare earth case and the protection of domestic natural resources.     

WTO“稀土案”与中国自然资源出口管制的完善

举世瞩目的 WTO"稀土案"于2014年8月7日终落帷幕。同先前的"原料案"一样,中国还是难逃败诉的命运。上诉机构支持申诉方的大部分指控,再次否决了《1994年关税与贸易总协定》(General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade of 1994,以下简称GATT)第20条对中国《入世议定书》的可适用性,从而确认中国对稀土、钨、钼三种原材料采取的出口税及配额等管制措施违背了WTO相关规则和入世所作的特殊承诺。作为自然资源的进出口大国,在自然资源贸易纠纷(特别是出口管制问题)不断"升温"和WTO争端解决机制运用愈来愈频繁的今天,中国应认真总结和反思这场"稀土保卫战"失利带来的经验教训,以从源头上破解中国出口管制措施在WTO体制下遭遇的法律困境,避免今后类似案件败诉的重现。基于此,本文综合应用案例分析、文本分析、历史分析和比较分析等方法对"稀土案"争讼的焦点和争端解决机构(DSB)的裁决意见做了详尽的透析,结果发现此案中DSB的审理不同程度存在着解释僵化、无视中国缔约真意及主观随意、前后矛盾等失范之处,对中国颇为不公。不过,该案也从另外一方面暴露出中国出口管制立法的疏漏与实施缺陷。是故,本文建议中国:1请求部长级会议/总理事会对GATT与《入世议定书》关系做出统一解释,并单独将出口税承诺纳入减让表;2重视DSB既有的裁决思路,根据WTO规则修改相关出口管制法规;3加强资源开采的法律管控,提高资源税的征收标准;4确保对内外资源需求企业的管制一致,优化出口许可管理,努力从WTO法和国内法两个层面推动现行自然资源出口秩序的完善,使中国今后对自然资源的出口管制既能符合WTO规则又能达致确保本国经济可持续性发展之目的。     

Controversy of International Carbon-motivated Border Tax Adjustment and Its Impact on China’s Manufacturing Industries

Carbon-motivated border tax adjustment (BTA) aims to compensate for the loss of competitiveness of carbon intensive products due to carbon dioxide abatement actions.Based on the analysis of the international background of carbon-motivated BTAs,this paper discusses the fundamental motivation leading to US policy transformation,the potential impacts of the policy on China’s manufacturing industries,and the compatibility of the policy to WTO rules.Carbon-motivated BTAs violate the fundamental principle of the UNFCCC,and potentially conflict with the core WTO principle of non-discrimination reflected in the GATT Articles I and III.However,Article XX of the GATT may be applicable.Thus,the author suggests several measures to alleviate the impacts of carbon-motivated BTAs,and puts forward countermeasures based on carbon consumption per capita.     

Environment Implications of China''''s WTO Accession

China's WTO accession will have important environmental implications. This article aims at providing environmental analysis of the impact of China's accession to the WTO, based on its final offer for WTO accession and a 53-sector, recursive dynamic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model of China. We try to provide some empirical evidences for policy makers to evaluate the effects of China's WTO accession from environmental prospective.     

碳关税对中国出口贸易的影响及应对策略

碳关税是美国提出的针对国际贸易中高能耗进口产品征税的一种新型绿色贸易壁垒。从表面上看,碳关税的提出是为了缓解全球气候变暖的现实,促进全球贸易的公平竞争。实质上,碳关税的提出是美国国内政治经济博弈的结果,其目的是为了夺取世界经济新的话语权,同时也是为了制衡中国在内的发展中国家。碳关税对我国出口的影响机制有二:第一,碳关税产生的价格效应促使出口商品成本上升,出口量下降,造成出口国净福利损失。第二,长期来看,碳关税的环境规制效应会促使出口企业实施创新、改进效率,企业竞争力增强。但是,就短期来说,由于我国尚不具备"波特假说"成立的前提条件,碳关税会促使成本上升,出口产品竞争力下降。本文系统分析了我国出口商品结构和地理方向,指出碳关税的推出将对我国当前出口贸易形成严峻的挑战,长期看将有利于我国市场结构、产业结构和出口结构的改善。基于以上的分析,文章提出了政府"环境外交"、逐步开征国内碳税、构建绿色制造体系等政策建议。     

入世前后中国农业贸易引致的就业“创造与替代”

我国加入世贸组织后,除了粮食安全、比较优势、竞争力等方面的影响研究外,农产品贸易开放对我国农业生产部门就业的影响一直令人关注,是具有比较优势的劳动密集型农产品出口带来更多就业创造,还是土地密集型农产品进口引致更多就业替代?本文运用1994-2009年数据,对入世前后农产品贸易开放引致的农业就业效应进行全面系统的实证分析,并对在不同情形下我国未来贸易引致的农业就业替代效应的程度和方式进行了模拟分析。研究结果表明:入世后我国农产品贸易引致的农业就业效应呈现出更明显的就业净替代变化;同时,在技术水平不变的情况下,我国未来劳动密集型农产品的实际出口增速与平抑就业替代压力的"理想增速"相距甚远,未来土地密集型净进口所产生的农业就业替代量将在较大程度上超过劳动密集型净出口创造的就业机会,我国农业就业整体"净替代"的趋势可能将长期持续。     

Economic analysis of effects on cultivated land following China's entry to the WTO

Inspired by the phenomenon of heavy reduction in the area of cultivated land following the entry of Korea and Japan to the WTO,countries with a large population and inadequate amount of cultivated land similar to China,this paper raises the problem of the potential effects on cultivated land in China following its entry to the WTO.The paper attempts analysis,using economic principles,of the effects of Chinese WTO membership on cultivated land from four aspects;tariff concessions,quota increment,comparative advantage,and the substitution principle.And the conclusion is mat China's entry to WTO may lead to a reduction in cultivated land.Finally,some countermeasures are proposed to resolve the problem.     

可持续发展目标下的清洁发展机制项目评价

清洁发展机制（CDM）是《京都议定书》规定的发达国家和发展中国家之间项目级的合作机制，CDM项目的目标之一是促进发展中国家的可持续发展。在京都议定书最终生效的背景下．CDM项目的开发与能力建设成为热点。本文基于多目标决革理论。讨论CDM促进可持续发展与否的评价方法。以国际最新的研究为基础。作者构建了CDM项目可持续评价的指标化体系。建立了评价过程。并将其应用刭具体的案例——内蒙古辉腾锡勒风电CDM项目的评价中。研究可以为中国的CDM潜在项目的选择、比较和批准等实践活动提供定量的方法和思路。这对于中国成为CDM国际合作中的重要参与者以及促进中国的可持续发展都具有重要的意义。     

WTO规则对西部开发的影响、风险及机遇浅析

随着中国加入WTO和西部大开发战略的实施 ,依法治国无疑是改善投资环境、促进西部开发的最有效手段之一。本文根据WTO基本原则与法制经济的相互关系和影响深入浅出地论述了WTO对西部开发的影响、风险及机遇 ,并提出了针对性的策略     

China’s Import of Wastes and Its Implications

The trade of wastes in the world has been increasing and China has become the largest importer of wastes. This paper examines the import trend of different wastes and finds out that the total import volume to China approved by the Chinese government keeps increasing and the illegal trade can not be banned despite repeated prohibitions; therefore, China is not only ＂a world factory＂, but actually ＂a global garbage dump＂. In order to well understand the implications of wastes import, this paper further analyzes the resource and environmental effects and risks of different wastes imports as well as the strong driving force of wastes imports. Based on these detailed analysis and solid data, policy recommendations are put forward to reduce the demand for raw materials, to further strengthen the inspection of and supervision over the international trade of the wastes that can be used as raw materials by using the life cycle analysis and risk analysis, to improve the environmental standards and strengthen the disposal capacity, to re-export the raw materials produced from the imported wastes, to develop the long-term planning for the import of wastes and to promote international cooperation.     

国际碳减排活动中的利益博弈和中国策略的思考

博弈论能够解释许多经济活动和国际关系中出现的现象和问题。利用博弈论的相关理论。对《京都议定书》各利益集团之间的利益争斗进行了分析。指出各利益集团之间斗争的内在原因。并对中国在新一轮谈判中的策略提出了一些建议：由于《京都议定书》生效,而美国仍拒绝批准《京都议定书》。并同时抛出自己的减排方案。这必然会引起新一轮的减排博弈。面对美国等一些国家施加的压力,中国在这场新的博弈中要有所准备。提出具有建设性的建议和意见。既要维护中国和大多数发展中国家的利益。又要有助于减排。     

全球经济一体化中的环境壁垒与我国环境和贸易政策选择

本文纵观全球经济贸易格局和环境问题特点,指出了环境壁垒是影响全球贸易和环境的重要因素,分析了环境壁垒产生的本质,提出了国际贸易的新形势下我国如何实现可持续经济发展的贸易和环境政策。     

Influence of "Holiday Tourism Circle of Beijing" on Chengde Tourism Spatial Alteration and Reconstruction

Chengde City, famous for its cultural sightseeing tourism industry, and is located in China's "Capital Holiday Tourism Circle". This location is advantageous, because of the recent boom in China's national tourism industry. This industry has gone through several structural and development changes with in the past several years. A result of these restructuring patterns is the great changes concerning competitive and cooperative relations among tourism destinations, which have precipitated the decline of the traditional sightseeing pattern.Northern China's "Capital Holiday Tourism Circle" is one of nine key areas within the Chinese tourism industry under development during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan. In the present article the method of "Distance Decline of The Tourist Flow" was used to define the flow of tourists in the Capital Holiday Tourism Circle and its influence upon Chengde's tourism spatial distribution. 3 aspects will be discussed: (1) The transformation from sightseeing to leisure markets makes the change possible in Chengde's tourism spatial pattern. (2) The location advantage (adjacent to Beijing and Tianjin) also leads to the change in Chengde tourism spatial pattern. (3) The establishment of freeways also contributes to a great degrees of change.The rapid development of leisure tourism might lead to the change from nucleus model to a diversified one within Chengde's tourism. Specifically, Chengde is developing the tourism industry with the central heritage area as the nucleus and the northern forest,pasture,southern mountain, and rivers as its periphery.     

中国种植业产品贸易自由化对环境影响的计量经济分析

入世后．中国将根据WTO的要求对农业贸易相关政策进行调整和改革，这将改变国内农业生产，进而影响到农村生态环境。在此背景下．本文首先界定了种檀业产品贸易自由化的涵义．并对其环境影响途径进行分析．然后利用计量经济方法着重分析了贸易自由化对国内种植业生产中化肥、农药使用的影响。研究结果表明，在种植业产品的贸易自由化中，进口渗透作用对缓解国内化肥、农药污染影响显着．而出口导向作用影响不明显。文章最后给出了减缓农产品贸易自由化的不利影响，发挥其有利影响的政策建议。     

城市建设用地利用效率的空间非均衡及影响因素

探寻空间差异视角下中国城市建设用地利用效率的基本特征及其内在机制对于创新城市建设用地高效配置路径、实现区域协调发展具有重要的现实意义。本文以中国大陆31个省(直辖市、自治区)2001—2014年数据为研究样本,在构建城市建设用地利用效率评价指标体系的基础上,采用数据包络分析方法测度中国城市建设用地利用效率综合指数,并根据MookherieeShorrocks提出的基尼系数分解方法,结合面板数据模型对中国城市建设用地利用效率的空间非均衡程度及其影响因素进行了定量刻画。结果表明:1中国城市建设用地利用效率表现出明显的空间非均衡特征,基本呈现出东部地区西部地区中部地区的地理格局,且从数据包络分析结果来看,中国城市建设用地利用效率总体上呈下降趋势,平均效率指数从2001年的0.750 1下降至2014年的0.694 8;2在全国层面和区域层面,城市建设用地利用效率的空间非均衡程度均不断加剧,基尼系数表现出"稳定上升——逐渐下降——趋于稳定"的变化路径,且从东、中、西部地区基尼系数平均值来看,东部地区城市建设用地利用效率的空间非均衡程度低于中部和西部地区;3三大区域分组设定的情况下,组内差异增加是中国城市建设用地利用效率空间非均衡程度加剧的主要来源,但其贡献率表现出逐渐缩小的趋势;4政策因素、发展因素、规模因素和结构因素是导致城市建设用地利用效率空间非均衡的主要原因,但是从面板数据模型回归结果来看,仅在西部地区,所有变量都通过了显著性检验,在全国和东、中部地区,各变量的显著性结果存在差异。     

基于“可持续性”要素的比较优势理论拓展

比较优势是不同国家生产同种产品的机会成本差异。传统理论认为,形成比较优势的机会成本主要为生产成本,而"可持续性"是一种代际公共品,耗费"可持续性"要素的机会成本是代际成本,即现在使用某(些)要素所放弃的未来使用之可能带来的纯收益。因此,不同国家的可持续性差异体现为代际成本差异,"可持续性"是塑造一国比较优势的新要素。若中国对外贸易过度依靠当代所具有的劳动力价格低廉和环境规制政策宽松所塑造的劳动力比较优势和环境比较优势,从长期看是不可持续的。通过代际成本内在化,可逐步实现对外贸易发展的短期理性与长期理性的统一。进而言之,中国需要妥善处理贸易增长与各种稀缺要素消耗之间的关系,平衡贸易增长与可持续发展的关系,当今的贸易与未来的贸易需寻求某种总量和结构上的均衡。     

中国进入WTO以来与欧盟棉花贸易的虚拟水资源总量研究

中国在与欧盟国家的商晶贸易中,直接进口的是初级农产品,但闻接进口的却是隐藏在这些农产最中的虚拟水.研究这些潜在的水资源,对缓解我国水资源压力,保障粮食安全具有重要的现实意义.本文采用联合国粮农组织FAO的CROPWAT Model计算模型,借助CropWat for Windows计算软件,从资源当量转换的角度出发,计算中国自进入WTO以来与欧盟国家的棉花贸易中水资源转换以及虚拟水贸易情况.计算结果表明,2003-2005年中国在与欧盟的棉花贸易中,间接进口了151.28×106m3的水资源,相当于节约了国内同等数量的水资源.本文可以为解决中国日益短缺的水资源问题提供有益参考.     

Mating patterns in three <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bufo andrewsi</Emphasis> populations at different latitude

Body size-dependent mating pattern is thought to a consequence of the sexual selection on phenotypic characters. In the view, we investigated the mating patterns in Bufo andrewsi from three populations at different latitude in three Nature Reserves (i.e. Wanglang, Yele and Fengtongzhai) in China from early- March to late-May 2013 and 2014. The results showed that average body size did not differ significantly between amplectant and non-amplectant males within each population. We found a significantly positive relationship in body size between the amplectant males and amplectant females in Wanglang population, but not in Qiqiao and Yele populations. The strength of size-dependent mating was not correlated with the malebiased operational sex ratios (OSRs), suggesting that intensity of male-male competition at nights do not result in variation in size-dependent mating patterns in B. andrewsi among populations.     

第三产业推行清洁生产初探

本文论述了第二产业清洁生产取得阶段性成果的基础上开展第三产业清洁生产的必要性,并通过举例总结归纳了第三产业清洁生产技术方案,为我国加入WTO后实现可皇续发展提供重要的参考。     

Statistical Methodologies Used to Calculate Urbanization Rates in China

To analyze China’s actual urbanization level, we iden- tified two statistical approaches: using the population living within the administrative boundaries (administrative-based method) and within the urbanized or built-up areas (infrastructure-based method) of cities and towns as urban population. To illustrate the two approaches and the associated problems, we used data for Tangshan City as a case study. The estimates on the administrative-based method were unreliable and the infrastructurebased method pro...