Driving context influences drivers' decision to engage in visual–manual phone tasks: Evidence from a naturalistic driving study

IntroductionVisual–manual (VM) phone tasks (i.e., texting, dialing, reading) are associated with an increased crash/near-crash risk. This study investigated how the driving context influences drivers' decisions to engage in VM phone tasks in naturalistic driving.MethodVideo-recordings of 1,432 car trips were viewed to identify VM phone tasks and passenger presence. Video, vehicle signals, and map data were used to classify driving context (i.e., curvature, other vehicles) before and during the VM phone tasks (N = 374). Vehicle signals (i.e., speed, yaw rate, forward radar) were available for all driving.ResultsVM phone tasks were more likely to be initiated while standing still, and less likely while driving at high speeds, or when a passenger was present. Lead vehicle presence did not influence how likely it was that a VM phone task was initiated, but the drivers adjusted their task timing to situations when the lead vehicle was increasing speed, resulting in increasing time headway. The drivers adjusted task timing until after making sharp turns and lane change maneuvers. In contrast to previous driving simulator studies, there was no evidence of drivers reducing speed as a consequence of VM phone task engagement.ConclusionsThe results show that experienced drivers use information about current and upcoming driving context to decide when to engage in VM phone tasks. However, drivers may fail to sufficiently increase safety margins to allow time to respond to possible unpredictable events (e.g., lead vehicle braking).Practical applicationsAdvanced driver assistance systems should facilitate and possibly boost drivers' self-regulating behavior. For instance, they might recognize when appropriate adaptive behavior is missing and advise or alert accordingly. The results from this study could also inspire training programs for novice drivers, or locally classify roads in terms of the risk associated with secondary task engagement while driving.     

Does a tow-bar increase the risk of neck injury in rear-end collisions?

IntroductionDoes a tow-bar increase the risk of neck injury in the struck car in a rear-end collision? The rear part of a modern car has collision zones that are rendered nonoperational when the car is equipped with a tow-bar. Past crash tests have shown that a car's acceleration was higher in a car equipped with a tow-bar and also that a dummy placed in a car with a tow-bar had higher peak acceleration in the lower neck area.MethodThis study aimed to investigate the association between the risk of neck injury in drivers and passengers, and the presence of a registered tow-bar on the struck car in a rear-end collision. We performed a merger of police reports, the National Hospital Discharge Registry, and the National Registry of Motor Vehicles in Denmark. We identified 9,370 drivers and passengers of whom 1,519 were diagnosed with neck injury within the first year after the collision. We found a statistically insignificant 5% decrease in the risk of neck injury in the occupants of the struck car when a tow-bar was fitted compared to when it was not fitted (hazard ratio = 0.95; 95% confidence level = 0.85–1.05; p = 0.32). The result was controlled for gender, age, and the seat of the occupant. Several other collision and car characteristics and demographic information on the drivers and passengers were evaluated as confounders but were not statistically significant.ConclusionsThe present study may serve as valuable input for a meta-analysis on the effect of a tow-bar because negative results are necessary in order to avoid publication bias.     

Traffic environment and demographic factors affecting impaired driving and crashes

IntroductionData availability has forced researchers to examine separately the role of alcohol among drivers who crashed and drivers who did not crash. Such a separation fails to account fully for the transition from impaired driving to an alcohol-related crash.MethodIn this study, we analyzed recent data to investigate how traffic-related environments, conditions, and drivers’ demographics shape the likelihood of a driver being either involved in a crash (alcohol impaired or not) or not involved in a crash (alcohol impaired or not). Our data, from a recent case–control study, included a comprehensive sampling of the drivers in nonfatal crashes and a matched set of comparison drivers in two U.S. locations. Multinomial logistic regression was applied to investigate the likelihood that a driver would crash or would not crash, either with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) = .00 or with a BAC ≥ .05.ConclusionsTo our knowledge, this study is the first to examine how different driver characteristics and environmental factors simultaneously contribute to alcohol use by crash-involved and non-crash-involved drivers. This effort calls attention to the need for research on the simultaneous roles played by all the factors that may contribute to motor vehicle crashes.     

Fatally injured pedestrians and bicyclists in the United States with high blood alcohol concentrations

IntroductionLittle research has focused on the problem of alcohol impairment among pedestrians and bicyclists in the United States. The aim of the current study was to investigate the prevalence, trends, and characteristics of alcohol-impaired fatally injured pedestrians and bicyclists.MethodData from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) were analyzed for fatally injured passenger vehicle drivers, pedestrians, and bicyclists 16 and older during 1982–2014. Logistic regression models examined whether personal, roadway, and crash characteristics were associated with high blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) among fatally injured pedestrians and bicyclists.ResultsFrom 1982 to 2014, the percentage of fatally injured pedestrians with high BACs (≥ 0.08 g/dL) declined from 45% to 35%, and the percentage of fatally injured bicyclists with high BACs declined from 28% to 21%. By comparison, the percentage of fatally injured passenger vehicle drivers with high BACs declined from 51% in 1982 to 32% in 2014. The largest reductions in alcohol impairment among fatally injured pedestrians and bicyclists were found among ages 16–20. During 2010–2014, fatally injured pedestrians and bicyclists ages 40–49 had the highest odds of having a high BAC, compared with other age groups.ConclusionsA substantial proportion of fatally injured pedestrians and bicyclists have high BACs, and this proportion has declined less dramatically than for fatally injured passenger vehicle drivers during the past three decades. Most countermeasures used to address alcohol-impaired driving may have only limited effectiveness in reducing fatalities among alcohol-impaired pedestrians and bicyclists.Practical applicationsEfforts should increase public awareness of the risk of walking or bicycling when impaired. Results suggest the primary target audience for educational campaigns directed at pedestrians and bicyclists is middle-age males. Further research should evaluate the effectiveness of potential countermeasures, such as lowering speeds or improving lighting in urban areas.     

Distracting behaviors among teenagers and young,middle-aged,and older adult drivers when driving without and with warnings from an integrated vehicle safety system

IntroductionNegative reinforcement from crash warnings may reduce the likelihood that drivers engage in distracted driving. Alternatively, drivers may compensate for the perceived safety benefit of crash warnings by engaging in distractions more frequently, especially at higher speeds. The purpose of this study was to examine whether warning feedback from an integrated vehicle-based safety system affected the likelihood that various secondary behaviors were present among drivers ages 16–17, 20–30, 40–50, and 60–70.MethodParticipants drove an instrumented sedan with various collision warning systems for an extended period. Ten 5-second video clips were randomly sampled from driving periods at speeds above 25 mph and below 5 mph each week for each driver and coded for the presence of 11 secondary behaviors.ResultsAt least one secondary behavior was present in 46% of video clips; conversing with a passenger (17%), personal grooming (9%), and cellphone conversation (6%) were the most common. The likelihood that at least one secondary behavior was present was not significantly different during periods when drivers received warnings relative to periods without warnings. At least one secondary behavior was 21% more likely to be present at speeds below 5 mph relative to speeds above 25 mph; however, the effect of vehicle speed was not significantly affected by warning presence. Separate models for each of the five most common secondary behaviors also indicated that warnings had no significant effect on the likelihood that each behavior was present.ConclusionsCollision warnings were not associated with significant increases or decreases in the overall likelihood that teen and adult drivers engaged in secondary behaviors or the likelihood of the behaviors at speeds above 25 mph or below 5 mph.Practical applicationsThere was no evidence that forward collision warning and other technologies like those in this study will increase or decrease distracted driving.     

Protective factors associated with young passenger intervening in risky driving situations

IntroductionWhile the negative influence of passengers on driving is usually studied, young passengers may protect against young drivers' crash involvement by speaking out and trying to stop unsafe driving behavior. This study sought to examine psychosocial constructs of young passengers who are likely to intervene in their friends' risky driving.MethodUniversity students aged 17 to 25 years who were single (n = 123) or in a romantic relationship (n = 130) completed an online survey measuring protective factors.ResultsThe combination of individual, friend and (for participants in a relationship) romantic partner protective factors predicted self-reported passenger intervening intentions.Impact on IndustrySince peer passengers often increase young drivers' crash risk, research on passenger intervening has significant implications for road safety strategies. The findings provide support for the operationalization of protective factors in strategies that target passenger intervening behavior.     

Peer influence predicts speeding prevalence among teenage drivers

Impact on IndustryPreventing speed-related crashes could reduce costs and improve efficiency in the transportation industry.ObjectiveThis research examined the psychosocial and personality predictors of observed speeding among young drivers.MethodSurvey and driving data were collected from 42 newly-licensed teenage drivers during the first 18 months of licensure. Speeding (i.e., driving 10 mph over the speed limit; about 16 km/h) was assessed by comparing speed data collected with recording systems installed in participants' vehicles with posted speed limits.ResultsSpeeding was correlated with elevated g-force event rates (r = 0.335, pb0.05), increased over time, and predicted by day vs. night trips, higher sensation seeking, substance use, tolerance of deviance, susceptibility to peer pressure, and number of risky friends. Perceived risk was a significant mediator of the association between speeding and risky friends.ConclusionThe findings support the contention that social norms may influence teenage speeding behavior and this relationship may operate through perceived risk.     

Tracking progress in teenage driver crash risk in the United States since the advent of graduated driver licensing programs

IntroductionThis study examined U.S. teenagers' crash rates since 1996, when the first graduated driver licensing (GDL) program in the United State was implemented.MethodsPassenger vehicle driver crash involvement rates for 16–19 and 30–59 (middle-aged) year-olds were examined, using data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, National Automotive Sampling System General Estimates System, Census Bureau, and National Household Travel Surveys.ResultsPer capita fatal and police-reported crash rates in 2012 were lower for 16 year-olds than for middle-aged drivers but older teenagers' rates were higher. Mileage-based fatal and police-reported crash rates in 2008 were higher for teenagers than for middle-aged drivers and higher for 16–17 year-olds than for older teenagers. In 1996–2012, teenagers' per capita fatal and police-reported crash rates declined sharply, especially for 16–17 year-olds, and more so than for middle-aged drivers. Substantial declines also occurred in teenagers' mileage-based fatal and police-reported crash rates from 1995–96 to 2008, generally more so than for middle-aged drivers. Regarding factors in fatal crashes in 1996 and 2012, proportions of young teenagers' crashes occurring at night and with multiple teenage passengers declined, more so than among older teenagers and middle-aged drivers. The proportion of fatally injured drivers who had been drinking declined for teenagers but changed little for middle-aged drivers. Improvements were not apparent in rates of driver errors or speeding among teenage drivers in fatal crashes.ConclusionsTeenage drivers' crash risk dropped during the period of implementation of GDL laws, especially fatal crash types targeted by GDL. However, teenagers' crash risk remains high, and important crash factors remain unaddressed by GDL.Practical applicationsAlthough this study was not designed to examine the role of GDL, the results are consistent with the increased presence of such laws. More gains are achievable if states strengthen their laws.     

Examining teen driver crashes and the prevalence of distraction: Recent trends, 2007–2015

IntroductionTeen drivers crash at a much higher rate than adult drivers, with distractions found as a factor in nearly 6 out of 10 moderate-to-severe teen crashes. As the driving environment continues to rapidly evolve, it is important to examine the effect these changes may be having on our youngest and most vulnerable drivers.MethodThe purpose of this study was to identify types of vehicle crashes teens are most frequently involved in, as well as the distracting activities being engaged in leading up to these crashes, with a focus on identifying changes or trends over time. We examined 2,229 naturalistic driving videos involving drivers ages 16–19. These videos captured crashes occurring between 2007 and 2015. The data of interest for this study included crash type, behaviors drivers engaged in leading up to the collision, total duration of time the driver's eyes were off the forward roadway, and duration of the longest glance away from forward.ResultsRear-end crashes increased significantly (annual % change = 3.23 [2.40–4.05]), corresponding with national data trends. Among cell phone related crashes, a significant shift occurred, from talking/listening to operating/looking (annual % change = 4.22 [1.15–7.29]). Among rear-end crashes, there was an increase in the time drivers' eyes were off the road (β = 0.1527, P = 0.0004) and durations of longest glances away (β = 0.1020, P = 0.0014).ConclusionsFindings suggest that shifts in the way cell phones are being used, from talking/listening to operating/looking, may be a cause of the increasing number of rear-end crashes for teen drivers.Practical applicationsUnderstanding the role that cell phone use plays in teen driver crashes is extremely important. Knowing how and when teens are engaging in this behavior is the only way effective technologies can be developed for mitigating these crashes.     

School transportation mode,by distance between home and school,United States,ConsumerStyles 2012

IntroductionMotor-vehicle crashes are a leading cause of death among children in the United States, and almost one-fourth of all trips by school-aged children are trips to and from school. This study sought to determine how children (5–18 years) travel to and from school and, among those living ≤ 1 mile of school, to explore the role of school bus service eligibility on school travel mode.MethodsWe used national 2012 survey data to determine prevalence of usual school travel mode, stratified by distance from school. For those living ≤ 1 mile of school, multivariable regression was conducted to assess the association between bus service eligibility and walking or bicycling.ResultsAlmost half (46.6%) of all children rode in passenger vehicles (PV) to school and 41.8% did so for the trip home. Results were similar among those living ≤ 1 mile (48.1%, PV to school; 41.3%, PV to home). Among those living ≤ 1 mile, 21.9% and 28.4% of children walked or bicycled to and from school, respectively. Ineligibility for school bus service was strongly associated with walking or bicycling to school [adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR: 5.36; p < 0.001)] and from school (aPR: 5.36; p < 0.001).ConclusionsRegardless of distance from school, passenger vehicles were a common mode of travel. For children who live close to school, the role that school bus service eligibility plays in walking or bicycling deserves further consideration.Practical applicationsGiven the large proportion of children who use passenger vehicles for school travel, effective interventions can be adopted to increase proper child restraint and seat belt use and reduce crash risks among teen drivers. Better understanding of conditions under which bus service is offered to children who live close to school could inform efforts to improve pedestrian and bicyclist safety for school travel.     

A validation of the low mileage bias using naturalistic driving study data

IntroductionThis paper evaluated the low mileage bias (LMB) phenomenon for senior drivers using data mined from the Second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP 2) Naturalistic Driving Study. Supporters of the LMB construct postulate that it is only those seniors who drive the lowest annual mileage who are primarily responsible for the increased crash rates traditionally attributed to this population in general.MethodThe current analysis included 802 participants, all aged 65 or older who were involved in 163 property damage and injury crashes, and deemed to be at-fault in 123 (75%) of those instances. Poisson regression models were used to evaluate the association between annualized mileage driven and crash risk.ResultsResults show that the crash rate for drivers with lower annualized mileage (i.e., especially for those driving fewer than approximately 3000 miles per year) was significantly higher than that of drivers with higher annualized mileage, and that 25% of the overall sample were low- mileage drivers according to this criterion. Data were also evaluated by gender and meta-age group (i.e., younger-old: 65–74 and older-old: 75–99), and the results were consistent across these sub-groups.ConclusionsThis study provides strong support for the existence of the LMB.Practical applicationsThese results can help to reshape how transportation safety stakeholders view senior drivers in general and help them to focus their efforts on those seniors most in need of either risk-reducing countermeasures or alternative means of transportation.     

Factors contributing to commercial vehicle rear-end conflicts in China: A study using on-board event data recorders

Introduction: In the last 30 years, China has undergone a dramatic increase in vehicle ownership and a resulting escalation in the number of road crashes. Although crash figures are decreasing today, they remain high; it is therefore important to investigate crash causation mechanisms to further improve road safety in China. Method: To shed more light on the topic, naturalistic driving data was collected in Shanghai as part of the evaluation of a behavior-based safety service. The data collection included instrumenting 47 vehicles belonging to a commercial fleet with data acquisition systems. From the overall sample, 91 rear-end crash or near-crash (CNC) events, triggered by 24 drivers, were used in the analysis. The CNC were annotated by three researchers, through an expert assessment methodology based on videos and kinematic variables. Results: The results show that the main factor behind the rear-end CNC was the adoption of very small safety margins. In contrast to results from previous studies in the US, the following vehicles' drivers typically had their eyes on the road and reacted quickly in response to the evolving conflict in most events. When delayed reactions occurred, they were mainly due to driving-related visual scanning mismatches (e.g., mirror checks) rather than visual distraction. Finally, the study identified four main conflict scenarios that represent the typical development of rear-end conflicts in this data. Conclusions: The findings of this study have several practical applications, such as informing the specifications of in-vehicle safety measures and automated driving and providing input into the design of coaching/training procedures to improve the driving habits of drivers.     

Driver speed selection and crash risk: Insights from the naturalistic driving study

IntroductionThis study investigates how speed limits affect driver speed selection, as well as the related crash risk, while controlling for various confounding factors such as traffic volumes and roadway geometry. Data from a naturalistic driving study are used to examine how driver speed selection varies among freeways with different posted speed limits, as well as how the likelihood of crash/near-crash events change with respect to mean speed and standard deviation.MethodRegression models are estimated to assess three measures of interest: the average speed of vehicles during the time preceding crash/near-crash and baseline (i.e., normal) driving events; the variation in travel speeds leading up to each event as quantified by the standard deviation in speeds over this period; and the probability of a specific event resulting in a crash/near-crash based on speed selection and other factors.ResultsSpeeds were relatively stable across levels-of-service A and B, within a range of 1.5 mph on average. Speeds were marginally lower (3.3 mph) on freeways posted at 65 mph versus 70 mph. In comparison, speeds were approximately 10.2 to 13.4 mph lower on facilities posted at 55 mph or 60 mph. Speeds were shown to be 2.5 mph lower in rainy weather and 11 mph lower under snow or sleet.ConclusionsSignificant correlation was observed with respect to speed selection behavior among the same individuals. Mean speeds are shown to increase with speed limits. However, these increases are less pronounced at higher speed limits. Drivers tend to reduce their travel speeds in presence of junctions and work zones, under adverse weather conditions, and particularly under heavy congestion. Crash risk increased with the standard deviation in speed, as well as on vertical curves and ramp junctions, and among the youngest and oldest age groups of drivers.     

Car safety and social differences in traffic injuries among young adult drivers: a study of two-car injury-generating crashes in Sweden

Objective—The study examines whether socioeconomic and sex differences in road-traffic crashes leading to injury vary according to car-safety level.Method—Individuals records of subjects born 1970–1972 registered in the Swedish Census of 1985 (n = 334,070) are linked to road-traffic-crash data for the period 1988–2000 for first police-registered two-car crashes leading to severe or fatal injury (n = 4875). Injuries are split into categories according to level of car safety on a five-point scale, based on criteria related to crash safety. Account is taken of both how the car is constructed and the effectiveness of its safety equipment (such as airbags and seat belts). For each car-safety level, relative risks are computed considering socioeconomic groups of origin, educational level, and sex.Results—No substantial differences between drivers in different socioeconomic positions of origin is observed except for crashes involving cars 30% better than average with regard to safety. There are consistent risk differences across all car-safety categories according to educational level. Male drivers show an elevated risk of injury in all car categories, except for cars with the poorest safety where they are at significant under-risk.Conclusions—Car-safety level impacts on social differences in road-traffic injury risks in specific and restricted manners. Car-safety development is an important factor in improved road safety, but it may not benefit all to the same extent.     

Young drivers' perceptions of culpability of sleep-deprived versus drinking drivers

Introduction: Sleep-deprived driving can be as dangerous as alcohol-impaired driving, however, little is known about attitudes toward sleep-deprived drivers. This study examined the extent to which young drivers regard sleep-deprived compared to drinking drivers as culpable for a crash, and how their perceptions of driving while in these conditions differ. Method: University student participants (N = 295; M = 20.4 years, SD = 1.3; 81% women) were randomly assigned to read one of five fatal motor-vehicle crash scenarios, which differed by aspects of the driver's condition. Culpability ratings for the drinking driver were higher than those for the sleep-deprived driver. Results: Qualitative findings revealed that driving while sleep-deprived was viewed as understandable, and driving after drinking was viewed as definitely wrong. The dangers of sleep-deprived driving remain under-recognized.     

Evaluation of left-turn lane offset using the naturalistic driving study data

IntroductionThe Strategic Highway Research Program 2 (SHRP 2) Naturalistic Driving Study (NDS) data were used to evaluate gap acceptance behavior of drivers at left-turn lanes with negative, zero, or positive offsets ranging from − 29 ft to + 6 ft. The objectives of the study were to develop guidance for the design of offset left-turn lanes used as a safety countermeasure, and to provide insight regarding the use of the NDS data to future users.MethodThe study included 3350 gaps in opposing traffic evaluated by 145 NDS volunteer drivers and 275 non-NDS drivers at 14 two-way stop-controlled intersections and 44 signalized opposing left-turn pairs. Logistic regression was used to model the critical gap length for drivers as a function of offset, under conditions when their view was either blocked or not by an opposing left-turning driver.ResultsThe analysis found that the critical gap was longer at left-turn lanes with negative offsets than at those with zero or positive offsets, and was also longer when sight distance was blocked by an opposing left-turning vehicle. Sight distance was much more likely to be restricted by an opposing left-turning vehicle at negative-offset and drivers at those intersections were less likely to accept a gap when an opposing left-turn driver was present.ConclusionsLonger gap lengths could potentially result in decreased operational efficiency of an intersection. In addition, drivers making left-turns at negative-offset left-turn lanes are, on average, more likely to leave the shortest amount of time between their turn and the arrival of the next opposing through-vehicle, which may present a potential safety concern.Practical applicationsThe findings provide guidance for highway designers considering using offset left-turn lanes as a crash countermeasure. This research also highlights the benefits and limitations of using the SHRP 2 NDS data to answer similar research questions.     

Evaluation of a video-based measure of driver heart rate

IntroductionInternal driver events such as emotional arousal do not consistently elicit observable behaviors. However, heart rate (HR) offers promise as a surrogate measure for predicting these states in drivers. Imaging photoplethysmography (IPPG) can measure HR from face video recorded in static, indoor settings, but has yet to be examined in an in-vehicle driving environment.MethodsParticipants (N = 10) completed an on-road driving task whilst wearing a commercial, chest-strap style heart rate monitor (“baseline”). IPPG was applied to driver face video to estimate HR and the two measures of HR were compared.ResultsFor 4 of 10 participants, IPPG produced a valid HR signal (± 5 BPM of baseline) between 48 and 75% of trip duration. For the remaining participants, IPPG accuracy was poor (< 20%).ConclusionsIn-vehicle IPPG is achievable, but significant challenges remain.Practical applicationsThe relationship between IPPG accuracy and various confounding factors was quantified for future refinement.     

Investigating the risk factors associated with pedestrian injury severity in Illinois

IntroductionPedestrians are known as the most vulnerable road users, which means their needs and safety require specific attention in strategic plans. Given the fact that pedestrians are more prone to higher injury severity levels compared to other road users, this study aims to investigate the risk factors associated with various levels of injury severity that pedestrians experience in Illinois.MethodOrdered-response models are used to analyze single-vehicle, single-pedestrian crash data from 2010 to 2013 in Illinois. As a measure of net change in the effect of significant variables, average direct pseudo-elasticities are calculated that can be further used to prioritize safety countermeasures. A model comparison using AIC and BIC is also provided to compare the performance of the studied ordered-response models.ResultsThe results recognized many variables associated with severe injuries: older pedestrians (more than 65 years old), pedestrians not wearing contrasting clothing, adult drivers (16–24), drunk drivers, time of day (20:00 to 05:00), divided highways, multilane highways, darkness, and heavy vehicles. On the other hand, crossing the street at crosswalks, older drivers (more than 65 years old), urban areas, and presence of traffic control devices (signal and sign) are associated with decreased probability of severe injuries.Conclusions and practical applicationsThe comparison between three proposed ordered-response models shows that the partial proportional odds (PPO) model outperforms the conventional ordered (proportional odds—PO) model and generalized ordered logit model (GOLM). Based on the findings, stricter rules to address DUI driving is suggested. Educational programs need to focus on older pedestrians given the increasing number of older people in Illinois in the upcoming years. Pedestrians should be educated to use pedestrian crosswalks and contrasting clothing at night. In terms of engineering countermeasures, installation of crosswalks where pedestrian activity is high seems a promising practice.     

“They’re lunatics on the road”: Exploring the normative influences of parents,friends, and police on young novices’ risky driving decisions

PurposeYoung novice drivers experience significantly greater risk of being injured or killed in car crashes than older more experienced drivers. This research utilised a qualitative approach guided by the framework of Akers’ social learning theory. It explored young novice drivers’ perspectives on risky driving including rewards and punishments expected from and administered by parents, friends, and police, imitation of parents’ and friends’ driving, and advantages and disadvantages of risky driving.MethodsTwenty-one young drivers (12 females, 9 males) aged 16–25 years (M = 17.71 years, SD = 2.15) with a Learner (n = 11) or Provisional (n = 10) driver licence participated in individual or small group interviews.Findings and conclusionsContent analysis supported four themes: (1) rewards and (2) punishments for risky driving, and the influence of (3) parents and (4) friends. The young novice drivers differed in their vulnerability to the negative influences of friends and parents, with some novices advising they were able to resist risky normative influences whilst others felt they could not. The authority of the police as enforcers of road rules was either accepted and respected or seen as being used to persecute young novices. These findings suggest that road safety interventions should consider the normative influence of parents and friends on the risky and safe behaviour of young novices. Police were also seen as influential upon behaviour. Future research should explore the complicated relationship between parents, friends, the police, young novices, and their risky driving behaviour.