Evaluating the best available social science for natural resource management decision-making

Increasing recognition of the human dimensions of natural resource management issues, and of social and ecological sustainability and resilience as being inter-related, highlights the importance of applying social science to natural resource management decision-making. Moreover, a number of laws and regulations require natural resource management agencies to consider the “best available science” (BAS) when making decisions, including social science. Yet rarely do these laws and regulations define or identify standards for BAS, and those who have tried to fill the gap have done so from the standpoint of best available natural science. This paper proposes evaluative criteria for best available social science (BASS), explaining why a broader set of criteria than those used for natural science is needed. Although the natural and social sciences share many of the same evaluative criteria for BAS, they also exhibit some differences, especially where qualitative social science is concerned. Thus we argue that the evaluative criteria for BAS should expand to include those associated with diverse social science disciplines, particularly the qualitative social sciences. We provide one example from the USA of how a federal agency − the U.S. Forest Service − has attempted to incorporate BASS in responding to its BAS mandate associated with the national forest planning process, drawing on different types of scientific information and in light of these criteria. Greater attention to including BASS in natural resource management decision-making can contribute to better, more equitable, and more defensible management decisions and policies.     

Public acceptance of tree health management: Results of a national survey in the UK

Assumptions about public stakeholder attitudes to pest and disease management can influence the decisions of forest managers and NGOs involved in responding to pests and diseases; however, they are rarely assessed directly. Evidence on the social acceptability of tree health management methods is required to inform government led policy and management. A nationally representative survey of 2000 members of the UK public was used to address two research questions: (1) How acceptable are tree health management methods to the public? (2) How do opinions about woodland functions, concern and awareness of tree pests and diseases, and demographics influence acceptance of management methods? We found that public stakeholders are highly supportive of tree health management; however, knowledge about tree pests, diseases, and management options is low. Methods seen as more targeted and ‘natural’ were preferred, e.g. felling and burning only affected trees and using biological control rather than chemical control. There were demographic differences in attitudes: men and older people are more likely to support management interventions and stronger management methods than females and younger people. Acceptance of management can also differ according to location and local context (e.g. management is less supported when it may impact on wildlife) and values (e.g. those with economic values are more supportive of management). These findings provide evidence to support current government initiatives on tree health and should improve confidence amongst managers tasked with carrying out tree pest and disease management. However, there is a need for in-depth qualitative studies to explain the beliefs which influence demographic variations in acceptance and the influence of concepts such as ‘nativeness’ and ‘naturalness’.     

Uncertainty,complexity and controversy in dolphin threat management: A role for post-normal science?

Managing fishing threats to populations of endemic, threatened Hector’s and Māui dolphins around New Zealand is a complex and controversial issue, underpinned by uncertain scientific knowledge. As such, it can be argued that it falls into the realm of post-normal science, which advocates transparency about uncertainties and stakeholder peer review of knowledge feeding into decision-making. This paper focuses on selected examples of modelling and risk assessment research relating to Hector’s and Māui dolphin threat management. It explores how knowledge is developed, shared and utilised by decision-makers, finding that uncertain scientific knowledge may be shared in ways that make it appear more certain, with some of the subjectivities involved in knowledge production hidden from view. Interviews with stakeholders illustrate how some stakeholders are aware of the subjectivities involved when uncertain knowledge underpins decision-making, so a lack of transparency may be leading to erosion of social trust in decisions made. This in turn can lead to a lack of support for dolphin conservation measures from key stakeholders such as the commercial fishing industry. The paper concludes that while moves towards increasing transparency and stakeholder involvement are apparent, a deeper embrace of post-normal science approaches to knowledge production and dissemination would contribute to effective dolphin threat management in New Zealand.     

Fisheries management: integrating societal preference, decision analysis, and ecological risk assessment

Fisheries management is the practice of analyzing and selecting options to maintain or alter the structure, dynamics, and interaction of habitat, aquatic biota, and man to achieve human goals and objectives. The theory of fisheries management is: managers or decision makers attempt to maximize renewable `output' from an aquatic resource by choosing from among a set of decision options and applying a set of actions that generate an array of outputs. Outputs may be defined as a tangible catch, a fishing experience, an existence value, or anything else produced or supported by renewable aquatic resources. Overall output is always a mix of tangible and intangible elements. However defined, management goals and objectives are essential components of fisheries management or any other field of renewable natural resource management. Reaching consensus on management goals and objectives has never been a simple task. Beyond the broad and often conflicting goals of an agency, managers must decide who should set specific management objectives — agency personnel, the public, or a combination of the two. Historically, rhetoric aside, fisheries managers in North America nearly always have consulted with professionals in governmental roles to set management objectives. In a strongly pluralistic society, this often resulted in protracted political and legal conflict. Increasingly, there are calls for use of risk assessment to help solve such ecological policy and management problems commonly encountered in fisheries management. The basic concepts of ecological risk assessment may be simple, but the jargon and details are not. Risk assessment (and similar analytical tools) is a concept that has evoked strong reactions whenever it has been used. In spite of the difficulties of defining problems and setting management objectives for complex ecological policy questions, use of risk assessment to help solve ecological problems is widely supported. Ecological risk assessment will be most useful (and objective) in political deliberations when the policy debate revolves around largely technical concerns. To the extent that risk assessment forces policy debate and disagreement toward fundamental differences rather than superficial ones, it will be useful in decision making.     

Participatory modelling for sustainable development: Key issues derived from five cases of natural resource and disaster risk management

Stakeholder participation is considered a key principle for sustainable development in the context of natural resource and disaster risk management. Participatory modelling (PM) is an interactive and iterative process in which stakeholder involvement is supported by modelling and communication tools. Planning and decision-making for sustainable development (SD)integrate three substantive dimensions − social, ecological and economic. The procedural dimension of SD, however, is equally important, and here we see great potential for PM. In this study, we evaluate five PM research projects against criteria for the procedural dimension of SD. This provides a basis for identifying key issues and needs for further research into PM for SD. While the cases show great potential, especially for supporting knowledge integration, learning and transparent handling of values and perspectives, they indicate a particular need to develop PM in respect of organizational integration. This issue is closely connected to the possibility of effectively implementing PM in practice.     

Responding to scientific uncertainty in U.S. forest policy

Scientific uncertainty plays a significant role in forest policy and planning. Ecological complexity, the gap between science and policy, and public perceptions of science all contribute to the challenge of dealing with scientific uncertainty. This paper provides an overview of the role of scientific uncertainty in U.S. forest policy and an analysis of the requirements for responding to uncertainty under the National Forest Management Act, National Environmental Policy Act, and Endangered Species Act. The analysis includes a review of a broad range of literature and relevant statutory and regulatory language, along with several illustrative examples of case law. Findings include that all three laws allow for considerable agency discretion in cases of scientific uncertainty, and none prescribes a particular response to uncertainty. Approaches such as adaptive management may provide a way to proceed despite uncertainty, and while this approach represents something of a new paradigm in public land management, it is not incompatible with the current legal framework. The article concludes with recommendations, such as increased transparency and changes in the norms of judicial review, for increasing the accountability of decisions when uncertainty is involved. Also considered are other suggestions, such as peer-review, Daubert standards, and Bayesian inference techniques.     

再生资源经营与政府管理

再生资源是21世纪唯一增长的资源,已成为全世界发展最快的朝阳产业。在发达国家,再生资源产业已经发展成为一个集“回收”与“再制造”为一体的独立产业,被称为第四产业。首先分析了再生资源经营的特征,并在此基础上研究出了再生资源经营管理具有“两不”发展规律,阐述了我国加强再生资源经营管理的意义,最后从政府的角度提出了加强再生资源经营管理的措施。     

中国的改革开放政策与环境保护发展

从产业结构、能源结构、基本设施、西部大开发、新工业文明等5个方面分析了中国经济体制的改革和经济增长方式的转变,并从法制建设、行政管理、公众 意识、经济手段、科技进步等5个角度讨论了中国环境保护政策的演化。展望 了中国的环境保护在综合决策、控制人口、强化法制、增加投入、清洁生产等5种措施上的发展效果。     

The means do not justify the ends: A comment on CALFED

The state-federal CALFED process was more successful in transforming the means of thinking about decisions regarding California Bay-Delta resource management than in achieving the desired policy ends. Case studies in this special issue document how CALFED helped change the dynamics between stakeholders and agency managers; between scientists and implementers; and between endangered species managers and water project operators. In most cases, however, the new relationships and agreements failed to achieve the desired policy outcomes. The new tools and approaches that CALFED fostered can complement and support – but not substitute for – the obligation of policy makers to honestly confront and resolve fundamental oppositions of interest over resource management issues.     

"十三五"期间地方社会发展领域科技发展思路研究

"十三五"时期,围绕安徽省资源环境领域科技创新紧迫需求.安徽省应重点在矿产资源绿色高效开发利用、水资源高效利用、地理信息产业、水污染防治、大气污染防治、土壤污染防治、生态环境治理、再生资源综合利用、环保装备等领域实施科技攻关.通过完善普惠性创新支持政策、增加多元化科技创新投入、加大公共产品供给、加强适应新常态的社会发展科技治理体系建设等途径,切实增强社会发展领域自主创新能力.     

The application of decision analysis in the remediation sector

Contaminated sites represent a serious environmental problem in Germany. The decision that remediation technology is optimal for a given site is complicated by the existence of multiple objectives to be optimized simultaneously, significant uncertainties about the remediation results, and the involvement of several decision-makers with conflicting interests. Decision analysis is a methodology to deal with problems of this kind. The application of decision analysis at a test site demonstrated that remediation decisions can greatly benefit from the structural guide, sound methodological approaches, and manifold results that can be deduced from decision analytic models. The careful preparation of the decision helps to prevent momentous wrong decisions, especially due to the sophisticated support, that decision analysis offers for risky decisions. Because remediation decisions can be regarded as prototypical for many decisions in the public sector, the results of this study may also impact other fields like waste management, water resource administration, traffic planning, or siting of hazardous industrial facilities.     

Collaborative use of geodesign tools to support decision-making on adaptation to climate change

Spatial planners around the world need to make climate change adaptation plans. Climate adaptation planning requires combining spatial information with stakeholder values. This study demonstrates the potential of geodesign tools as a mean to integrate spatial analysis with stakeholder participation in adaptation planning. The tools are interactive and provide dynamic feedback on stakeholder objectives in response to the application of spatial measures. Different rationalities formed by underlying internalized values influence the reasoning of decision-making. Four tools were developed, each tailored to different rationalities varying between a collective or individual viewpoint and analytical or political arguments. The tools were evaluated in an experiment with four groups of participants that were set around an interactive mapping device: the touch table. To study how local decision-making on adaptation can be supported, this study focuses on a specific case study in the Netherlands. In this case study, multiple different stakeholders need to make spatial decisions on land use and water management planning in response to climate change. The collaborative use of four geodesign tools was evaluated in an interactive experiment. The results show that the geodesign tools were able to integrate the engagement of stakeholders and assessment of measures. The experiment showed that decision-making on adaptation to climate change can benefit from the use of geodesign tools as long as the tool is carefully matched to the rationality that applies to the adaptation issue. Although the tools were tested to support the design of adaptation plans in a Dutch setting, the tools could be used for regional adaptation planning in other countries such as the development of regional adaptation strategies (RAS) as required by the European Union or on a national scale to support developing national adaptation plans of action (NAPAs) as initiated by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) for least developed countries.     

Making science relevant to environmental policy

Implementation of current environmental and natural resource policy has created an era of regulatory discontent, and has prompted calls for new approaches to management that can achieve both long-term ecological sustainability and improved policy performance. These new approaches, such as ecosystem management, emphasize the importance of holistic and integrated science, meaningful public involvement to reflect changing societal goals and objectives, collaborative decisionmaking, and flexible and adaptable institutions. Implementing such approaches will require significant institutional change in all institutions, including the institution of science. Attributes of the scientific culture — including adherence to the myth of objective, value-free science, preference for technical solutions as first-order solutions, and advancement of the scientific method and scientific rationality as preferred logic — have often worked to separate scientists from citizens and science from the policymaking process. They have also fostered undemocratic processes and results. Changes in the institution and culture of science, including embracing more holistic and integrated scientific processes, creating a more civic science, and rethinking the role of scientific advocacy in the policy process, will be required to move toward democratic as well as ecological sustainability.     

白洋淀流域水资源管理中的公众参与分析及评价

有效的公众参与是提高流域水资源管理效率和流域综合管理成功的关键因素. 选取白洋淀流域的典型城市模块(保定市)、乡村模块(涞水县)及水敏感区(安新县)进行研究,综合采用问卷调查、利益群体访谈和专家咨询等方法,对政府管理人员、流域居民的环境意识及水资源管理参与现状进行了分析评价,比较与评估了政府及相关利益群体的环境知识、环境满意度、信息流通渠道、参与意愿、实际参与度、政府行为及其公众认知度和接受度. 结果表明:公众参与水资源管理的现状是水敏感区的参与效果好于城镇模块,且城镇模块好于乡村模块;公众获取环境知识与环境信息的途径主要以亲身感受与媒体宣传的被动接受形式为主;参与途径不畅通,实际参与度低于有参与意愿的比例,参与意愿不确定性高;公众对于政府行为的认知度为41.3%,接受度仅为19%;管理者对于公众参与在水资源管理中作用的认识仍有待提高,参与活动以宣传教育为主,缺乏整体考虑及上下游沟通与设计,缺乏全过程参与,居民尚未形成共同认可的流域价值观. 建议加强全过程参与、环保民间团体的作用以及学校环境教育.      

企业环境行为信息公开化研究初探

在传统环境管理体系下，政府主要依靠行政管理和经济手段调控企业的环境行为，而信息手段的引入，不仅为政府的环境政策的制定提供了支持同时公众参与屯给企业施有力的刺激作用。以世界银行在印度尼西亚试行的信息公开化制度为例，探讨了企业环境行为信息公开化的内容及春对污染控制的调控作用。     

国家科技发展规划与中国的资源科学

国家先后编制了七次科技发展规划,资源科学研究也从最初的自然资源综合考察发展成了一门综合性交叉学科。其中以《1956-1967年科学技术发展远景规划》和《1978-1985年全国科学技术发展规划纲要》,对资源科学的形成与发展影响最大。前者推动了中国自然资源综合考察事业的形成与发展,后者促进了中国资源科学考察事业的发展与壮大,进而推动了资源科学的形成与发展。全文在回顾与展望国家科技发展规划与中国资源科学发展的基础上,提出了新世纪初期国家中长期科学技术发展规划有关资源科学发展的3条建议。     

促进我国再生资源产业发展的思路与对策

讨论了政府如何适应变化了的回收体系的管理和服务需要,国际通行的“废物丢弃付费”制度为什么在我国难以实行,如何改变利废企业技术水平低和二次污染等问题。提出以下建议：整顿和规范回收体系;发展二手货市场;加大再生资源加工利用技术开发的投入力度;制定优惠政策,激励再生资源产业发展;对进口废料实行园区化管理;完善法律法规和标准,做好基础性工作;加强能力建设,提高公众意识和参与能力。     

短缺资源类型与供需趋势分析

短缺资源是指在一定时空范围和一定技术经济条件下,因需求量大于供给量而产生明显缺口的资源。按照短缺资源的分类,中国战略性短缺资源主要有石油、耕地和淡水,三者对国家安全和社会经济发展具有全局性和长远性影响。中国非战略性短缺资源主要有森林、富铁矿、铬铁矿、铜矿和钾盐等。随着经济的发展,人口的继续增长,从本世纪初到本世纪中叶,上述各种短缺资源的短缺数量增加,短缺程度趋于加剧。解决中国短缺资源的供需矛盾,需要从多种途径综合考虑:①多元化利用国外资源,弥补国内资源短缺;②建立战略资源储备体系,应付突发危机;③节约、替代和综合利用降低资源消耗;④强化资源保护,提高资源再生能力;⑤依靠科技进步,寻求解决短缺资源的新途径。     

广东省供销社系统再生资源经营管理模式探索

再生资源回收利用是循环经济的重要组成部分,我国供销社紧抓再生资源经营不放松,经历了由计划经济体制到市场经济体制的转变,重新在再生资源经营市场企稳了脚跟,已成为我国发展循环经济的生力军,并将发挥日益重要的作用。广东省供销社系统在率先改革开放的划时代背景下,解放思想,大胆探索,勇于实践,因地制宜,积极开展新的再生资源经营管理实践,开创了再生资源经营管理新局面。通过实地调研,总结归纳提炼出了广东省供销社系统再生资源经营管理5种模式,对我国供销社系统的发展和我国循环经济的推进有着一定的借鉴作用。