Third world sanitation options — the Zambian case

Summary Water-borne sanitation it too expensive to install in low cost urban housing areas in the Third World, and interest has turned to various inexpensive alternative systems. In the Zambian context, such systems must be cheap to install, and require a minimum of maintenance, which must be of low complexity.After examining a wide range of systems, the author concludes that three unlined and three lined toilet types are suitable for trial installation in peripheral and central low cost housing areas respectively. A strategy for conducting tests is outlined and the importance of organisational and community development emphasized.Dr. Dave Todd is a Senior Lecturer in Sociology, in the School of Environmental Studies at the University of Zambia. On behalf of Zambia's National Housing Authority, in 1979, he was Consultant Sociologist to that country'sUrban Sanitation Survey.     

A world in balance

The objectives of this paper are to define the scope of global population growth within the uncompromising everyday realities of technology, economies, and politics and to demonstrate the intimate between the human population problem and the increasing problem of Nature's destruction. It is hoped that the human species will come to its sense in time to create an adequate standard of living of all of its members in peace and environmental balance. The number of people the world can support is considered in terms of 1) the provision for a standard of living adequate for everyone's health and wellbeing, 2) consideration for wildlife and nature, and 3) reliance on existing levels of technology and politics. Standards of living are suggested for the affluent and the austere. The focus on the discussion is on standards of living, global carrying capacity, the imperatives of population control and respect for nature, humans versus wildlife, and the need for a universal declaration of respect for nature. Carrying capacity is determined by total land area, cultivated land area, forest land area, cereals (grain), and wood. Use per capita of each of the 5 essentials is determined for the affluent or austere standard of living. An affluent standard means that world population would be limited to 2 billion, which is 50% of the current population. An austere standard of living means a limit of 3 billion, or 33% less than the existing population. The unfortunate reality is that today's total population of 4.5 billion is increasing at an annual rate of 1.9% and is not expected to level off until it has increased 3 times. This population growth occurs at the expense of wildlife. Of the total terrestrial animal biomass, humans constitute 4% and domestic livestock 15%, which, in 40 years, will reach a combined 40% and lead to more species extinction. One species of bird or mammal will become extinct for each increase of 220 million people, which happens every 3 years. The solution is a radical stop, reversal, and stabilization of population to achieve one which is lower than today's 4.5 billion.     

The world energy situation

The oil crisis has ended on a worldwide scale. Risks of excessive price rises have disappeared. Between now and the year 2000, oil resources costing less than $15/bbl (1988 dollars) will be abundant. Twenty to 25% of the oil consumed in 2000 for thermal uses will be replaced by less costly natural gas and coal. Consumption of these last two energy sources will increase if the cost of oil rises above $20/bbl (1988 dollars). The cost of oil will rise sharply when it becomes reserved for the uses for which it is irreplaceable, ie transport, petrochemicals, the Third World and non-energy uses — probably after 2010.     

The eighth world conservation lecture

The World Conservation Lecture is an annual event organised by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), United Kingdom, to draw attention to the World Conservation Strategy. This lecture was presented at the Commonwealth Institute in London on 20 April 1989. Full copies of the lecture, in booklet form, are available from the Public Relations Department, WWF - UK, Panda House, Weyside Park, Godalming, Surrey, GU7 1XR.     

Conservation in a Third World Country

Summary The problems of man’s increasing abuse and misuse of his environment are multiplying in direct proportion to the increase in the human population. This is particularly true of much of the Third World, where often a low level of literacy is accompanied by a steadily growing birthrate. Small island habitats, because of their long geological separation from the large land masses frequently have flora and fauna that are unique but the pressures on their environment are considerably greater. In the struggle to compete in an increasingly mechanised and industrial world they are forced to devastate the natural habitat of many of their indigenous species in order to obtain agricultural land, building materials and fuel. While wooing the tourist market on the one hand with the beauty of their beaches, they are at the same time removing the sand wholesale for construction purposes. If the people themselves are to survive, industrial growth is quite obviously essential. Because the practices that at present place the environment under threat are, in many cases, vital to the individual’s ability to support himself, reasonable alternatives must be offered before they can be effectively controlled. Ms Maria Grech came to Saint Lucia originally in 1961 and spent almost eighteen years in the restaurant business. When she sold out in 1979 she decided to devote more time to writing and specifically to writing about the island which had become her home. For two years now she has written and illustrated a monthly conservation news-sheet that is distributed throughout the schools here by the local Forestry Division. In November 1981 the paper—Bush Talk—was awarded a prize for creative journalism and funding is now being sought to have it published in book form. She is an executive member of the Saint Lucia Naturalists’ Society and is currently compiling their first year book. She has also been a regular contributor to the Caribbean Conservation News.     

Overview of hypoxia around the world

No other environmental variable of such ecological importance to estuarine and coastal marine ecosystems around the world has changed so drastically, in such a short period of time, as dissolved oxygen. While hypoxic and anoxic environments have existed through geological time, their occurrence in shallow coastal and estuarine areas appears to be increasing, most likely accelerated by human activities. Several large systems, with historical data, that never reported hypoxia at the turn of the 19th century (e.g., Kattegat, the sea between Sweden and Denmark) now experience severe seasonal hypoxia. Synthesis of literature pertaining to benthic hypoxia and anoxia revealed that the oxygen budgets of many major coastal ecosystems have been adversely affected mainly through the process of eutrophication (the production of excess organic matter). It appears that many ecosystems that are now severely stressed by hypoxia may be near or at a threshold of change or collapse (loss of fisheries, loss of biodiversity, alteration of food webs).     

Freshwater wetlands human-induced changes: Indirect effects must also be considered

Two recent studies have documented changes in wetland ecosystems in New England by examining changes in wetland vegetation over time. Both documented shifts in vegetation towards shrub and forest dominated wetlands Both then concluded that natural succession has changed more wetlands than human impact has. The last conclusion does not necessarily follow from the data provided. There are three important points that emerge from re-considering these studies 1) indirect human impact (for example, water level changes, eutrophication, sedimentation) must be considered when assessing human impact on wetlands, particularly given that subtle indirect impact affects larger areas than direct impact from drainage and infilling, 2) when discussing indirect effects of human activity, it is important to carefully define which indirect effects are being considered, since there is a continuum ranging from infilling through to alteration of global CO₂ levels, and 3) given the complexity of indirect effects, it is unlikely that most can be recognized in the field.