Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in air from various indoor environments

Eleven organophosphorus compounds (OPs) that are used as plasticizers and flame retardants were analysed in duplicate samples of indoor air from 17 domestic and occupational environments. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) columns were used as adsorbents and analysis was performed using GC with a nitrogen phosphorus selective detector. The total amounts of OPs in the air samples ranged between 36 and 950 ng m(-3); tris(chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP) and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) being the most abundant (0.4 to 730 ng m(-3)), followed by tributyl phosphate (0.5-120 ng m(-3)). Public buildings tended to have about 3-4 times higher levels of OPs than domestic buildings. The relative amounts of individual OPs varied between the sites and generally reflected the building materials, furniture and consumer products used in the sampled environments. Potential sources of these compounds include, inter alia, acoustic ceilings, upholstered furniture, wall coverings, floor polish and polyvinylchloride floor coverings. A correlation was observed between the TCEP concentrations in the air in the sampled environments and previously reported concentrations in dust, but no such correlation was seen for the heavier and less volatile tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP). Based on estimated amounts of indoor air inhaled and dust ingested, adults and children in the sampled environments would be exposed to up to 5.8 microg kg(-1) day(-1) and 57 microg kg(-1) day(-1) total OPs, respectively.     

Concentrations of organophosphate esters and brominated flame retardants in German indoor dust samples

While it is known that the ingestion of indoor dust contributes substantially to human exposure to the recently restricted polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), the situation for one class of potential replacements, i.e. organophosphate esters (OPEs), used in a variety of applications including as flame retardants has yet to be fully characterised. In this study, surface dust from twelve different cars from various locations throughout Germany were analysed for eight OPEs, decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), and eight PBDEs. In five cars, tris-(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) was the dominant compound with concentrations up to 620 μg g(-1) dust. High concentrations of tri-cresyl phosphate (TCP) (up to 150 μg g(-1)) were also detected in two samples of car dust. Dust from ten offices in the same building in Ludwigsburg, Germany was also analysed. In these samples, tri (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP) predominated with an average concentration of 7.0 μg g(-1) dust, followed by tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) at 3.0 μg g(-1) and triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) at 2.5 μg g(-1) dust. Although caution must be exercised given the relatively small database reported here; this study provides evidence that cars and offices from Germany are significantly more contaminated with OPEs than PBDEs. Average concentrations of ΣOPEs were ten times higher in car than in office dust. This is the first study to provide data on a wide range of OPE concentrations in German indoor dust samples.     

Determination of organophosphorus fire retardants and plasticizers in wastewater samples using MAE-SPME with GC-ICPMS and GC-TOFMS detection

Determination of organophosphorus fire retardants and plasticizers at trace levels in wastewater is described. In this work, microwave assisted extraction (MAE) and solid-phase microextraction (SPME) are used for sample preparation to extract and preconcentrate the analytes, followed by analysis by gas chromatography coupled to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (GC-ICP-MS) for phosphorus-specific detection. Gas chromatography coupled to time of flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS) was used to confirm the organphosphorus fire retardants in wastewater. The detection limits of organophosphorus fire retardants (OPFRs) were 29 ng L(-1) for tri-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP), 45 ng for L(-1) for tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBEP), and 50 ng L(-1) for tris(2-ethylhexyl)phosphate (TEHP). Optimized extraction conditions were performed at 65 degrees C for 30 min and with 10% NaCl. Application of MAE during the sample preparation prior to the SPME allowed the detection of tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate, which has been difficult to determine in previous work. Application of the method to wastewater samples resulted in detecting 3.1 microg L(-1) P from TnBP, 5.0 microg L(-1) P from TBEP, and 4.0 microg L(-1) P from TEHP. The presence of these compounds were also confirmed by SPME-GC-TOF-MS.     

Monitoring of the three organophosphate esters TBP,TCEP and TBEP in river water and ground water (Oder,Germany)

The behaviour of the three organophosphate esters tributyl phosphate (TBP), tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP) and tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBEP) during infiltration of river water to ground water has been investigated. The monitoring site is the Oder River and the adjacent Oderbruch aquifer. From March 2000 to July 2001, 76 ground water samples from monitoring wells located close to the Oder River and nine river water samples were collected. Additionally, influent and effluent samples from local waste water treatment plants, one sample of rain water and samples of roof runoff were collected. All samples were analysed by solid-phase-extraction followed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. TBP, TCEP and TBEP were detected at mean values of 622 ng l(-1), 352 ng l(-1), and 2955 ng l(-1), respectively in municipal waste water effluents. This points to a major input of these compounds into the Oder River by municipal waste water discharge. The concentrations of TBP and TBEP decreased downstream the Oder River possibly due to aerobic degradation. TBP, TCEP and TBEP were detected in ground water influenced predominantly by bank-filtered water. This demonstrates a transport of organic compounds by river water infiltration to ground water. TBP, TCEP and TBEP were also detected in rain water precipitation, roof runoff and ground water predominantly influenced by rain water infiltration. This hints to an input of these compounds to ground water by dry and wet deposition after atmospheric transport. Organophosphate esters were also detected in parts of the aquifer at 21 m depth. This demonstrates low anaerobic degradation rates of TBP, TCEP and TBEP.     

The impact of domestic wood burning on personal, indoor and outdoor levels of 1,3-butadiene, benzene, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde

The aim of this study was to quantify personal exposure and indoor levels of the suspected or known carcinogenic compounds 1,3-butadiene, benzene, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde in a small Swedish town where wood burning for space heating is common. Subjects (wood burners, n = 14), living in homes with daily use of wood-burning appliances were compared with referents (n = 10) living in the same residential area. Personal exposure and stationary measurements indoors and at an ambient site were performed with diffusive samplers for 24 h. In addition, 7 day measurements of 1,3-butadiene and benzene were performed inside and outside the homes. Wood burners had significantly higher median personal exposure to 1,3-butadiene (0.18 microg m(-3)) compared with referents (0.12 microg m(-3)), which was also reflected in the indoor levels. Significantly higher indoor levels of benzene were found in the wood-burning homes (3.0 microg m(-3)) compared with the reference homes (1.5 microg m(-3)). With regard to aldehydes, median levels obtained from personal and indoor measurements were similar although the four most extreme acetaldehyde levels were all found in wood burners. High correlations were found between personal and indoor levels for all substances (r(s) > 0.8). In a linear regression model, type of wood-burning appliance, burning time and number of wood replenishments were significant factors for indoor levels of 1,3-butadiene. Domestic wood burning seems to increase personal exposure to 1,3-butadiene as well as indoor levels of 1,3-butadiene and benzene and possibly also acetaldehyde. The cancer risk from these compounds at exposure to wood smoke is, however, estimated to be low in developed countries.     

Background concentrations of individual and total volatile organic compounds in residential indoor air of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany

During a monitoring campaign concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were measured in indoor air of 79 dwellings where occupants had not complained about health problems or unpleasant odour. Parameters monitored were the individual concentration of 68 VOCs and the total concentration of all VOCs inside the room. VOCs adsorbed by Tenax TA were then analysed by means of thermal desorption, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. The analytical procedure and quantification was done according to the recommendation of the ECA-IAQ Working Group 13 which gave a definition of the total volatile organic compound (TVOC) concentration. Using this recommendation TVOC-concentrations ranged between 33 and 1600 microg m(-3) with a median of 289 microg m(-3). Compounds found in every sample and with the highest concentrations were 2-propanol, alpha-pinene and toluene. Save for a few samples, all concentrations measured have been a factor 2 to 10 lower, compared to data from similar studies. Only a few terpenes and aldehydes were found exceeding published reference data or odour threshold concentrations. However, it has been found that sampling and analysing methods do have a considerable impact on the results, making direct comparisons of studies somewhat questionable. 47% of all samples revealed concentrations exceeding the threshold value of 300 microg TVOC m(-3) set by the German Federal Environmental Agency as a target for indoor air quality. Using the TVOC concentration as defined in the ECA-IAQ methodology is instrumental in assessing exposure to VOCs and identifying sources of VOCs. The background concentrations determined in this study can be used to discuss and interpret target values for individual and total volatile organic compounds in indoor air.     

Development of a solid phase microextraction (SPME) method for the sampling of VOC traces in indoor air

Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was studied for the measurement of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in indoor air. An adsorptive PDMS/Carboxen fibre was used and an analytical methodology was developed in order to overcome competitive adsorption. Kinetics and adsorption isotherms were investigated for different sample volumes and model compounds. In order to evaluate competitive adsorption on the fibre, these compounds were studied alone and in mixture. From the results obtained, the operating conditions allowing co-adsorption of the target compounds were determined: the air sample is enclosed in a 250 mL glass bulb where the SPME fibre is exposed until adsorption equilibrium. This procedure was combined with GC/MS analysis for the identification and quantification of VOCs in indoor air. The performances were determined by using a standard gas containing 10 VOCs representative of indoor environments (acetaldehyde, acetone, BTX, alpha-pinene, trichloroethylene, alkanes). The detection limits were determined in single ion monitoring mode and for a signal to noise ratio of 3. Except acetaldehyde (6 microg m(-3)), they are all below 0.5 microg m(-3). Calibration curves are linear up to 10 micromol m(-3) for all the compounds with good correlation coefficients (above 0.99). The reproducibility ranges from 6 to 12% according to the compound. The methodology was then applied to the comparison of the VOCs content in classrooms of two different schools.     

Indoor air pollution by 2-ethyl-1-hexanol in non-domestic buildings in Nagoya, Japan

2-Ethyl-1-hexanol is a possibly causative chemical in sick building symptoms, although 2-ethyl-1-hexanol has received little attention as a hazardous substance in studies on indoor air pollution. Airborne 2-ethyl-1-hexanol concentrations were measured from 2002 to 2004 in 99 rooms of 42 non-domestic buildings in Nagoya, Japan. The diffusive sampling method is effective for the measurement of a low level of 2-ethyl-1-hexanol in indoor air. The geometric mean (geometric standard deviation) of 2-ethyl-1-hexanol concentrations was 16.5 (5.4) microg m(-3) in indoor air and 1.9 (2.2) microg m(-3) in outdoor air. The maximum concentration of 2-ethyl-1-hexanol in indoor air and outdoor air was 2709 microg m(-3) and 12.4 microg m(-3), respectively. Fewer rooms in a small number of new buildings showed high concentrations of 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, while low concentrations were observed in many rooms of these buildings as well as the other new buildings. The room-to-room concentrations of 2-ethyl-1-hexanol in each building exhibited a wide variation. The geometric mean of the 2-ethyl-1-hexanol concentrations was significantly higher for indoor air than for outdoor air (p < 0.01). The correlation of the 2-ethyl-1-hexanol concentrations between indoor and outdoor air was not significant. Mechanical ventilation was effective in the temporary reduction of indoor 2-ethyl-1-hexanol level. These results suggest that the predominant source of 2-ethyl-1-hexanol was indoor areas.     

Risk assessment of trihalomethanes from tap water in Fortaleza, Brazil

The cancer risks (CR) by oral ingestion, dermal absorption, and inhalation exposure of trihalomethanes (THM) from tap water of ten districts in Fortaleza, Brazil were estimated. The mean levels of THM compounds were obtained in Fortaleza tap water as follow: 63.9 microg L(-1) for chloroform (CHCl(3)), 40.0 microg L(-1) for bromodichloromethane (CHBrCl(2)), and 15.6 microg L(-1) for dibromochloromethane (CHBr(2)Cl). Bromoform (CHBr(3)) was not detected. The mean CR for THMs in tap water is 3.96 x 10(-4). The results indicate that Fortaleza residents have a higher CR by inhalation than dermal absorption and oral ingestion. The CR for CHCl(3) contributes with 68% as compared with the total CR, followed by CHBrCl(2) (21%), and CHBr(2)Cl (11%). The hazard index (HI) is about ten times lower than unity, not indicating non-cancer effects.     

Development and comparison of methods using MS scan and selective ion monitoring modes for a wide range of airborne VOCs

Adsorbent sampling with analysis by thermal desorption, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (TD/GC/MS) offers many advantages for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and thus is increasingly used in many applications. For environmental samples and other complex mixtures, the MS detector typically is operated in the scan mode to aid identification of co-eluting compounds. However, scan mode does not achieve the optimal sensitivity, thus compounds occurring at low concentrations may not be detected. This paper develops and evaluates the application of a more sensitive TD/GC/MS method using selective ion monitoring (SIM) that is applicable to VOC mixtures found in ambient and indoor air. Based on toxicity and prevalence, 94 VOCs (including terpenes, aromatic, halogenated and aliphatic compounds) were selected as target compounds. Two analytical methods were developed: a conventional full scan method for ions from 29 to 270 m/z; and a SIM method using 16 time windows and different ions selected for the compounds in each window. Both methods used the same Tenax GR adsorbent sampling tubes, TD and GC parameters, and target and qualifier ions. Laboratory tests determined calibrations, method detection limits (MDLs), precisions, recoveries and storage stability. Field tests compared scan and SIM mode analyses for duplicate samples of indoor air in 51 houses and outdoor air at 41 sites. Statistical analyses included the development of error/precision models. The laboratory tests showed that most compounds demonstrated excellent precision (<10% for concentrations exceeding approximately 0.5 microg m(-3)), good linearity, near identical calibrations for scan and SIM modes, a wide dynamic range (up to 1500 microg m(-3)), and negligible storage losses after 1 month (7 compounds showed moderate losses). SIM mode MDLs ranged from 0.004 to 0.27 microg m(-3), representing a modest (1.1 to 22-fold) improvement compared to scan mode. However, in field tests the SIM method detected significantly more compounds (e.g., styrene and chloroform). Error models fit most compounds and allow quantification of errors at selected percentiles. Overall, while the new SIM method is somewhat time-consuming to develop, it offers greater sensitivity and maintains the high selectivity of traditional scan methods.     

Indoor and outdoor concentrations of PM2.5 trace elements at homes, preschools and schools in Stockholm, Sweden

Fine particles (PM2.5) were sampled indoors and outdoors at 40 sampling sites; in ten classrooms in five schools, at ten preschools and 20 non-smoking homes, in three communities in Stockholm, Sweden, during nine 2-week periods. Each sampling site was sampled twice, once during winter and once during spring. The samples were analysed for elemental concentrations using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy. In all locations significantly higher outdoor concentrations were found for elements that are related to long-range transported air masses (S, Ni, Br and Pb), while only Ti was higher indoors in all locations. Similar differences for S, Br and Pb were found in both seasons for homes and schools. In preschools different seasonal patterns were seen for the long-range transported elements S, Br and Pb and the crustal elements Ti, Mn and Fe. The indoor/outdoor ratios for S and Pb suggest an outdoor PM2.5 particle net infiltration of about 0.6 in these buildings. The community located 25 km from the city centre had significantly lower outdoor concentrations of elements of crustal or traffic origin compared with the two central communities, but had similar levels of long-range transported elements. Significant correlations were found between PM2.5 and most elements outdoors (rs = 0.45-0.90). Copper levels were found to correlate well (rs = 0.64-0.91) to the traffic marker NO2 during both winter and spring in all locations. Copper may be a suitable elemental marker for traffic-related aerosols in health studies in areas without other significant outdoor Cu sources.     

A positive chemical ionization GC/MS method for the determination of airborne ethylene glycol and propylene glycols in non-occupational environments

An analytical method for ethylene glycol and propylene glycols has been developed for measuring airborne levels of these chemicals in non-occupational environments such as residences and office buildings. The analytes were collected on charcoal tubes, solvent extracted, and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry using a positive chemical ionization technique. The method had a method detection limit of 0.07 microg m(-3) for ethylene glycol and 0.03 microg m(-3) for 1,2- and 1,3-propylene glycols, respectively, based on a 1.44 m3 sampling volume. Indoor air samples of several residential homes and other indoor environments have been analyzed. The median concentrations of ethylene glycol and 1,2-propylene glycol in nine residential indoor air samples were 53 microg m(-3) and 13 microg m(-3) respectively with maximum values of 223 microg m(-3) and 25 microg m(-3) detected for ethylene glycol and 1,2-propylene glycol respectively. The concentrations of these two chemicals in one office and two laboratories were at low microg m(-3) levels. The maximum concentration of 1,3-propylene glycol detected in indoor air was 0.1 microg m(-3).     

The use of semipermeable membrane devices as passive samplers to determine persistent organic compounds in indoor air

In the study reported here semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) were used to sample 28 PAHs and 19 PCBs in the gas phase in 15 single-family houses located in an area where domestic wood burning is widespread. Eight of the households used wood burning appliances whereas the others used other systems for residential heating. Most of the studied compounds were found in the houses: the PAHs at levels that were similar to or slightly higher than published SPMD-sampled levels for background or urban sites in Sweden, and the PCBs at levels that were somewhat lower than those recently found in both indoor and outdoor urban locations. A principal component analysis revealed that wood-burning heating systems may contribute to PAHs in indoor air. The sources may be emissions indoors or penetration from outdoors. The convenience of SPMD technology facilitates its use for semi-quantitative screening and monitoring of various persistent organic compounds indoors in dwellings and working environments.     

Preliminary assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the Scottish aquatic environment, including the Firth of Clyde

This paper presents preliminary data on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the Scottish aquatic environment. Sediment and biota (fish liver, fish muscle and mussels) from a number of locations around Scotland were analysed for PBDEs with samples being from both remote and from potentially contaminated areas such as the former sewage sludge dump site at Garroch Head in the Clyde. PBDEs were measured in both cultivated, rope grown mussels and wild mussels collected from 5 sites around Scotland in 2006. Total PBDE concentrations (sum of tri- to hepta-BDEs) ranged from 相似文献   

Occurrence and distribution of organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in anthropogenically affected groundwater

Occurrence and distribution of chlorinated and non-chlorinated organophosphates in 72 groundwater samples from Germany under different recharge/infiltration conditions were investigated. Tris(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) phosphate (TCPP) and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) were the most frequently detected organophosphates in groundwater samples. Highest individual organophosphate concentrations (>0.1 μg L(-1)) were determined in groundwater polluted by infiltrating leachate and groundwater recharged via riverbank filtration of organophosphate-loaded recipients. In samples from springs and deep groundwater monitoring wells that are not affected by surface waters, organophosphate concentrations were mostly below the limit of detection. The occurrence (3-9 ng L(-1)) of TCPP and TCEP in samples from aquifers with groundwater ages between 20 and 45 years indicates the persistence of both compounds within the aquifer. At urban sites organophosphate-loaded precipitation, surface runoff, and leakage of wastewater influenced groundwater quality. For rural sites, where groundwater recharge is only influenced by precipitation, organophosphates were very rarely detectable in groundwater.     

Passive sampling of glycol ethers and their acetates in indoor air

This study examined the performances of a thermal desorbable radial diffusive sampler for the weekly measurement of eight glycol ethers in indoor air and described the results of an application of this method carried out as part of HABIT'AIR Nord - Pas de Calais program for the air monitoring of these compounds in sixty homes located in northern France. The target compounds were the four glycol ethers banned from sale to the public in France since the 1990s (i.e. 2-methoxy ethanol, 2-ethoxy ethanol and their acetates) and four other glycol ethers derivatives of which the use have increased considerably (i.e. 1-methoxy-2-propanol, 2-butoxy ethanol and their acetates).A test program was carried out with the aim of validating the passive sampling method. It allowed the estimation of all the parameters of a method for each compound (calibration, analytical precision, desorption efficiency, sampling rate in standard conditions, detection limit and stability of sample before and after exposure), the examination of the influence of environmental factors on the sampling rate by some exposure chamber experiments and the assessment of the uncertainty of the measurements.The results of this evaluation demonstrated that the method has turned out to be suitable for six out of eight glycol ethers tested. The effect of the environmental factors on the sampling rates was the main source of measurement uncertainty. The measurements done in sixty homes revealed a relative abundance of 1-methoxy-2-propanol that was found in more than two thirds of homes at concentration levels of 4.5 microg m(-3) on average (a maximum value of 28 microg m(-3)). 1-methoxy-2-propanol acetate and 2-butoxy ethanol were also detected, but less frequently (in 19% of homes) and with the concentrations below 12 microg m(-3). The highest levels of these glycol ethers appear to be in relation to the emissions occurring at the time of cleaning tasks.     

Airborne particulate matter and BTEX in office environments

Total suspended particulate (TSP), PM(2.5) and BTEX were collected in nine offices in the province of Antwerp, Belgium. Both indoor and outdoor aerosol samples were analysed for their weight, elemental composition, and water-soluble fraction. Indoor TSP and PM(2.5) concentrations ranged from 7-31 microg m(-3) and 5-28 microg m(-3), with an average of 18 and 11 microg m(-3), respectively. Of all the elements analysed in indoor TSP, more than 95% was represented by Al, Si, K, Ca, Fe, Cl and S, accounting for 12% of the TSP by mass. The other elements showed significant enrichment relative to the earth's crust. The water-soluble ionic fraction accounted for almost 30% of the sampled indoor TSP by weight, and was enriched by anthropogenic activities. It was shown that the indoor PM levels varied among the offices, depending on the ventilation pattern, location, and occupation density of the office. Indoor BTEX levels ranged together from 5-47 microg m(-3) and were considerably higher than the corresponding outdoor levels. It was observed that some recently constructed and renovated buildings were clearly burdened with elevated levels for toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylenes, while outdoor air was found to be the main source for BTEX levels at the 'older' offices.     

Indoor air pollution levels in public buildings in Thailand and exposure assessment

Levels of pollutants including PM2.5 and PM2.5 composition (black carbon and water soluble ions), SO(2), NO(2), CO, CO(2), and BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene) were monitored for indoor and outdoor air at a university campus and a shopping center, both located in the Northern suburb of Bangkok. Sampling was done during December 2005-February 2006 on both weekdays and weekends. At the university, indoor monitoring was done in two different air conditioned classrooms which shows the I/O ratios for all pollutants to be below 0.5-0.8 during the weekends. However, on weekdays the ratios for CO(2) and most detected BTEX were above 1.0. The concept of classroom occupancy was defined using a function of the student number in a lecture hour and the number of lecture hours per day. Classroom 2, which had a higher occupancy than classroom 1, was characterized by higher concentrations of most pollutants. PM2.5 was an exception and was higher in classroom 1 (37 microg/m(3), weekdays) as compared to classroom 2 (26 microg/m(3), weekdays) which was likely linked to the dust resuspension from the carpeted floor in the former. Monitoring was also done in the shopping mall at three different sites. Indoor pollutants levels and the I/O ratios at the shopping mall were higher than at the university. Levels of all pollutants measured at the car park, except for toluene and CO(2), were the highest. I/O ratios of the pollutants at the mall were above 1.0, which indicates the relatively higher influence of the indoor sources. However, the black carbon content in PM2.5 outdoor is higher than indoor, which suggest the important contribution from outdoor combustion sources such as the traffic. Major sources of outdoor air pollution in the areas were briefly discussed. Exposure modeling was applied using the time activity and measured pollutant concentrations to assess the exposure of different groups of people in the study areas. High exposure to PM2.5, especially for the people working in the mall, should be of health effect concern.     

Sampling and Analysis of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) Traces in Indoor Atmosphere

Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) are widely found in disinfectants used in hospitals. Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) and didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) predominate in the disinfecting formulations. These compounds are strong irritants and can play a role in the induction of Occupational Asthma among the professionals of health and cleaning. In order to evaluate the potential health effect of these quaternary ammonium compounds to hospital employers, the development of an analytical method for their quantification in indoor air was developed. DDAC aerosols are trapped by adsorption on XAD-2 resin SKC tube. The air in hospital buildings was sampled using a constant debit Gillian pump at a flow of 1.0 l/min (+/-5%). Ion Chromatography (IC) was chosen for the analysis of DDAC especially for its high sensitivity and specificity. The Limit of Detection (LOD) by IC for DDAC is 0.56 mug/ml. Therefore the LOD of atmospheric DDAC is 28 microg/m(3) with an air volume of 100 l and a desorption volume of 5 ml. All DDAC air samples were lower than the LOD of the analytical method by IC. Under the standard conditions of use of the disinfecting solutions (Surfanios, Ampholysine Plus and Amphospray 41), the insignificant volatility of DDAC would not seem to be able to contaminate the indoor hospital atmosphere during the disinfection process. However, the DDAC can contaminate working atmospheres if it is put in suspension by aerosolisation.     

Trace metal bioaccumulation in eight common coastal Australian polychaeta

Whole tissue trace metal concentrations of ten metals in eight common coastal Australian polychaete species collected from uncontaminated locations were measured. The mean concentration range for each trace metal was: Mn: 2.6-13 microg g(-1); Co: 0.8-4.6 microg g(-1); Cu: 3.4-26 microg g(-1); Zn: 47-225 microg g(-1); As: 18-101 microg g(-1); Se: 2.2-20.4 microg g(-1); Ag: 0.03-2.5 microg g(-1); Cd: 0.07-17 microg g(-1); Hg: 0.08-0.88 microg g(-1) and Pb: 0.09-3.2 microg g(-1)dry mass. Principal components analysis of trace metal signatures revealed that the habitat, i.e. exposed coast sand or rock, estuarine sand or estuarine mud substrate in which a polychaete species was found, had a significant influence on the bioaccumulation of six trace metals (Mn, Cu, Zn, Ag, Cd and Pb). However, there is no clear relationship between trace metal concentrations in substrates and polychaetes. The results of the current study contribute to a reference dataset of polychaete species-specific natural background trace metal concentrations for use in determining the extent of trace metal contamination by urban and industrial sources.