Crisis,argument, and agriculture

Scholarly critics such as Wendell Berry, as well as the popular media, frequently refer to problems associated with agriculture as the agricultural crisis or the farm crisis. Despite the identification of a problem or problems as symptomatic of this crisis, scant attention is paid to why the situation is a social crisis as opposed to a problem, tragedy, trend, or simple change in the structure of agriculture. This paper analyzes the use of social crisis as applied to the state of modern agriculture and, by extension, other crises such as those in legitimation and morality. It concludes that, although important social values associated with farming as a way of life may be in danger of being lost, the crisis we may be facing with respect to agriculture is more properly understood as a sociopolitical crisis that has broader implications than simply the loss of farms or traditional farming values. Indeed, what is in danger of being lost is our ability to affect a secure and sustainable political-economic system.     

Attitudes Toward Wilderness Study Areas: A Survey of Six Southeastern Utah Counties

Southeastern Utah is a region of world-renowned red-rock sandstone formations, large tracts of federal public land, rural communities centered on agriculture and extractive industries, and is often at the epicenter of environmental protection efforts in the western United States. Environmental groups have proposed formal Wilderness designations for much of the regions public land—proposals that have been actively fought by rural community leaders who do not want large areas locked-up from traditional livelihood and recreational uses. The debate over wilderness designation in the region has been characterized in the media as one that is particularly contentious and polarizing. A survey of southeastern Utah residents was conducted in order to better understand this conflict. The survey focused on attitudes toward wilderness designation and management. We found that residents of southeastern Utah have negative attitudes towards the designation and management of Wilderness Study Areas. We propose that these attitudes should be carefully considered and engaged in future policy and management decisions. We suggest that negative opinions expressed by residents of southeastern Utah are not directed primarily at the concept of environmental protection but rather at the strong perception that these programs and initiatives have been carried out in a heavy-handed manner and dominated by outside influences that have overwhelmed local voices.     

Environmental gradients in northwest freshwater wetlands

Wetland environmental characteristics are examined to determine their spatial and temporal relationships. Two very different Oregon freshwater wetlands provided a range of wetland types. Results are evaluated to determine the possible use of environmental characteristics in defining wetlands and their boundaries. Representative physical, hydrological, and edaphic properties were periodically measured in microplots along upland/wetland transects. A multivariate approach is stressed in the data analysis; correlation, cluster analysis, and principal components analyses were used. The results indicate the environmental characteristics change in a quantifiable manner both spatially and temporally. The controlling mechanism is moisture, spatially in terms of the upland/wetland transect and temporally with respect to seasonal response. These changes do not correlate well with vegetation. Several hypotheses are offered as an explanation. Correlation within environmental characteristics is variable but definite patterns are discernible. These data suggest both single and combinations of environmental characteristics that could serve as keys in wetland identification and boundary determination. However, before extensive use is made of this information additional long-term monitoring of wetland environmental characteristics will be required.     

Theory of the physical environment: An introduction

This paper suggests a way of classifying human physical environment according to its location and function. Environmental science is viewed as a branch of ecology, and the concept of the complex ecosystem is introduced. By using differential equations, the author draws attention to four factors that must be considered when evaluating the effect of any environmental agent on a human subject: the agent's extensive quality of rate of flow, its intensive quality of concentration or intensity, duration of the subject's exposure, and the uniformity of agent's stress in space and time. The environmental agents, individually or in jointly acting groups, produce environmental stress, which acts on the subject to produce strain and its contingent symptoms. The microclimate in this setting can be classified according to the type of stress involved. The human physical environment may be evaluated in three ways: objectively, subjectively, and from the standpoint of regulations or standards. The benefit or advantage of using this equation in evaluating or measuring the human physical environment is discussed.     

Options and limitations in fisheries management

Conclusion As a final thought, I want to conclude with the cliche that a problem recognized is half solved. Certainly, I cannot be accused of laying out a solution to solving the major fisheries management problems, but it is hoped that the problems managers face are now clearer. The complexity of fisheries assystems to be managed is clear to even the most casual observer. The second point, a broad theory of fisheries management, should provide a framework to categorize all of the disjointed activities that we associate with management of our fisheries resources.     

Environmental problem-solving and land-use management: A proposed structure for Australia

A three-tiered structure of land-use and environmental management is here proposed for Australia. The structure is based on the idea that environment means the environment of people, and that environmental problems arise when a change in the interaction between people and their environment leads to conflicts about the use of land and resources. The heterogeneity of society means that a range of human aspirations and value systems must be satisfied by environmental managers. Existing methods of environmental management fail to achieve these objectives, due to inadequate perception of environmental problems by decision-makers, and the inability of currently available impact assessment techniques to resolve human conflicts associated with the use of land and resources. The main work of planning and managing land use and the environment would be carried out by regional authorities, supported by federal and state policy. Examples are given of moves towards regional administration in England and Wales, Western Australia, Australia and New Zealand. Community participation in the decision-making process is essential and can be achieved by electoral representation to the authoritative bodies and through procedures that ensure informed public comment on planning proposals.     

A utopian perspective on ecology and development

Summary Effective communication concerning environmental issues can take a variety of forms. The following essay is offered as a metalogue, a piece of writing in which the writing itself illustrates the principles developed in the writing.International readers will be helped if they know that Jack Armstrong and Sergeant Preston are heroes of moralizing (and often jingoistic) radio dramas popular among children in the United States during the War years and that the Tom Mix Holster Set and the A-bomb Ring were premiums offered to children in boxes of cold cereal in the period after the War. These trivia illustrate the kinds of societal messages directed toward the generation of Americans who presumably will be running the country during the 1980s.The authors are a professor of Psychology and Ethology and a graduate student in International Development. Both attended Harvard University in the late 1950s and the University of California, Berkeley, in the early 1960s. Their autobiographical reflections have something to say about the motivation underlying the environmental movement and where these motivations are likely to lead in the near future.     

Management and valuation of an environmentally sensitive area: Norfolk Broadland,England, case study

Wetlands, like any other environmentally sensitive resource, require very careful evaluation. While it is accepted that all wetlands may be equally valuable in terms of maintaining global life-support systems, individual areas may be ranked according to their uniqueness or the irreplaceability of the resource should the wetland be developed. The various techniques available for evaluating the wetland resource in the development versus conservation conflict situation are critically assessed. Indirect appraisal via the opportunity cost method can generate valuable data which have contributed to the mitigation of such conflict situations.The Broadland, in Norfolk, England, recently designated an environmentally sensitive area (ESA), provides a case study example of wetland management. The search for an acceptable flood alleviation strategy for the ESA is examined in detail. The economic and environmental asset structure of the study area is examined at two levels. A basic screening system is applied to each of the identified flood protection planning units to enable the rank ordering of the units. A more detailed appraisal is then made of the value of selected units so that the cost-effectiveness of any planned expenditure on flood protection works can be assessed. Specific management issues and their likely effect on the environment, in terms of land use for example, are also addressed. The 1986 Agriculture Act marks a potential watershed in British conservation policy. The ESA policy encompasses a dual management strategy that attempts to stimulate compatible agricultural and conservation practices and activities. Other countries that still retain significant unspoiled wetland resources may find that preemptive regulatory government intervention in favor of conservation would help to avoid the worst aspects of the British experience.     

Nuclear crisis relocation: Issues for a host community-the case of Greenfield,Massachusetts, USA

US civil defense planning for nuclear attack since 1974 has emphasized the doctrine of crisis relocation. Under this doctrine, some 150 million people would evacuate from urban areas and other probable targets to rural host communities. The population of the latter would stay put to assist the relocatees. Local communities would be responsible for the welfare of up to ten times their normal population for an indefinite period of time.This study examined certain implications of crisis relocation for the town of Greenfield, Massachusetts, USA, a typical host community. Various assumptions were articulated regarding the timing of events, the season of year, weather, and social behavior. Assumptions were favorable to the success of crisis relocation. Nevertheless, Greenfield would face impossible burdens in attempting to provide fallout protection, water, food, medical care, and civil order. Additional pressures would arise from adjoining communities which are functionally dependent upon Greenfield for normal goods and services, but which would receive their own allotment of relocatees. Crisis relocation is not taken seriously in Greenfield and virtually no preparations have been made to implement it.     

Incentive problems in Canada's land markets: Emphasis on Ontario

The specific issue addressed in this paper is urban encroachment on agricultural lands, and the problems it poses for both analysis and the conservation of the land resource. The purpose of our discussion is two-fold: (1) to identify where and why traditional analytical and regulatory approaches fail to resolve land use conflicts, and (2) to explore ways and means of resolving some of the dilemmas which society faces in making land use decisions. This paper's contribution is in the spirit of Getting Incentives Right for the inter-temporal transfer of wealth, as represented in trade-offs between environmental and resource endowments and human and physical capital. Efforts are placed on identifying what the appropriate price, levy, taxes, and grant ratios ought to be in order to encourage individuals in the marketplace to act in society's interest. We have also explored ways of efficiently transmitting those incentives through the market mechanism, without unduly relying on bureaucratic methods or suasion. Emphasis is placed on mechanisms that have little scope for preferential access and are subject to public scrutiny; emphasis on such self-disciplining approaches should result in less effort expended on (unproductive) lobbying activities and bureaucratic administration.Brad Gilmour and Ted Huffman are Policy Analyst and Land Use Specialist respectively with Agriculture and Agri-food Canada. Andy Terauds and Charlie Jefferson are chairman and secretary respectively for the Ontario Institute of Agrologists Ottawa Branch Land Use Committee. This paper is intended to provoke thought and stimulate debate for input into the land use policy process and should not be seen as representing the views and policies of either Agriculture Canada or the Ontario Institute of Agrologists.     

Regulatory Oversight of Genetically Engineered Microorganisms: Has Regulation Inhibited Innovation?

/ Using detailed interviews with company representatives and researchers in the field, this paper examines the factors that might account for the slow pace of development of genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) intended for environmental release. We specifically analyzed the role of the regulatory system in shaping innovation. We identified at least two cases where industry decided to discontinue the development of a genetically engineered microbial product because of concerns over regulatory oversight. However, most often industry decisions to continue or halt development of GEMs were based on an evaluation of the particular product's efficacy and potential for profitability. Thus the inability of GEMs to perform up to expectations in the field, rather than the regulatory constraints, appears to be the factor responsible for the slow pace of development. KEY WORDS: Genetically engineered microorganisms; Biotechnology; Regulation of biotechnology; Innovation; Environmental release     

Environmental management in the UK: The way ahead for business

Summary Increasingly stringent environmental lesislation and a growing consciousness of environmental issues within the community are spurring companies into adopting environmental improvement programmes. Enhanced environmental management not only ensures compliance with legislation but has other benefits, including reduced energy and waste disposal costs, improved public image, acess to green markets and lower insurance premiums. BS7750 and the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme now offer businesses the opportunity to establish a systematic and accredited environmental management system which will serve as a yardstick of environmental quality.     

Allocation of River Flows for Restoration of Floodplain Forest Ecosystems: A Review of Approaches and Their Applicability in Europe

Floodplain forests are flood-dependent ecosystems. They rely on well-timed, periodic floods for the provision of regeneration sites and on tapered flood recession curves for the successful establishment of seedlings. These overbank flood events are described as regeneration flows. Once floodplain forest trees are established, in order to grow they also require adequate, although variable, river stage levels or maintenance flows throughout the year. Regeneration flows are often synonymous with flood flows and only occur periodically. There is a disparity between this need for varied interannual flows over the decadal time frame and the usual annual cycle of flow management currently used by most river management agencies. Maintenance flows are often closer to established minimum flows and much easier to provide by current operational practices.A number of environmental flow methodologies, developed in North America, Australia, and South Africa are described in this review. They include the needs of the floodplain environment in the management and allocation of river flows. In North America, these methodologies have been put into practice in a number of river basins specifically to restore floodplain forest ecosystems. In Australia and South Africa, a series of related holistic approaches have been developed that include the needs of floodplain ecosystems as well as in-channel ecosystems. In most European countries, restoration of floodplain forests takes place at a few localized restoration sites, more often as part of a flood-defense scheme and usually not coordinated with flow allocation decisions throughout the river basin. The potential to apply existing environmental flow methodologies to the management of European floodplain forests is discussed.     

Toxicity studies and environmental impact assessment

There is abundant evidence that many factors can influence the toxicity of a particular pollutant including environmental fluctuations, season of the year, stage in life cycle, size, and sex. All of these factors should be assessed before making a judgment of the effect on natural populations. Such an assessment can be conceptualized using a simple population model through whichcontrol gates operate as functions of 1). the direct self-maintainance feedback from existing adult population biomass and 2). the recruitment of new individuals due to the maturation of larvae. By extracting general principles of organismic response to pollutants it is possible to incorporate the information into large-scale ecosystem models which would serve as working tools for answering environmental decision-making problems.     

The environmental audit. I. Concepts

Extensive criticism of water quality monitoring programs has developed as costs are compared with the benefits produced by monitoring efforts. Collecting water quality data while developing understanding of the functional character of the environment will improve water quality monitoring data utility in environmental management. The environmental audit characterizes the attributes of the natural environment (that is, attribute type, intensity, and variability), providing a theoretical as well as practical foundation for data interpretation. In the view proposed here, traditional monitoring means the very narrow activity of collecting samples and perhaps analyzing them and storing the analyses. In the environmental audit, these activities are a mechanism to systematically improve environmental monitoring and assessment by improving the design and implementation of environmental programs. Major reasons why existing programs fail to meet the needs of legislators, regulators, and conservationists are identified.     

Sustainable Mining in the European Union: The Legislative Aspect

This paper is a review of the community legislation of the European Union (acquis communautaire) with regard to the mineral extractive industry. It highlights the existing inconsistencies of the acquis, which require correction. Historically, the mining industry has received privileged treatment within the European Community. The treaties declare the promotion of a policy of using natural resources prudently and rationally to avoid their unconsidered exhaustion. However, mining is excluded from the scope of major environmental directives or reserves a certain freedom for interpretation. This has led to an increasing number of related cases at the European Court of Justice.The regulatory tools of the environmental acquis are rather diverse in controlling the emission sources, the pollution pathways, and the impacted receptor media through administrative measures or assigning environmental quality targets. A combined approach is needed for controlling the environmental impacts of the extractive industries. The amendment of the Seveso II Directive, the elaboration of a reference document on best available techniques and the preparation of a wide-scope directive on mining waste management might provide a frame for the elimination of the above discrepancies. In addition, a coherent European Community policy based on the balanced consideration of economic, environmental, and social aspects could ensure a sustainable development of the mining industry. National expert detached from the Hungarian Geological Survey, H-1143 Budapest, Stefánia út 14.     

Modelling environmental concern: Theory and application

Summary Human concern for the quality and protection of the natural environment forms the basis of successful environmental conservation activities. The social sciences have considered this concern as an area of research activity. In the present paper environmental concern research is considered and emphasis is placed upon studies which have depicted it in multiple dimensions. The results are then presented from research which has attempted to ask What are the dimensions of this concern? These findings suggest that individuals perceive different environmental issues differentially using multiple concurrent dimensions of evaluation. In general, issues are ascribed to a series of different categories which embody evaluations of; type (or referent) of issue, issue scale, environmental importance and personal importance of the issue.Dr Paul Hackett was until recently a staff member in the Consumer Research Unit of the Department of commerce at the University of Birmingham Business School. He is now on the staff of the Department of General Practice, University of Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff.     

Integrating Economic Development and the Environment: Artisan Fishing Production in Guanabara Bay,Rio de Janeiro

The adoption of environmentally sustainable techniques by cooperatives and small companies results in specific difficulties rarely discussed in the literature. This paper describes an action-research carried out by seafood cultivators and university researchers in Guanabara Bay, which resulted in the substitution of the previous technique, based on extraction, by one without negative environmental impacts. The economic results have been satisfactory, so it can be expected that this activity may become more widespread in the region.     

Environmental management systems in further and higher education institutions

Many people within the further and higher education sector in the United Kingdom (UK) have now accepted that responsible environmental management of their day to day site operations is necessary, but they are still unclear as to what lengths they need to go to obtain marketplace credibility. Many people in other sectors believe that the only way to achieve real credibility in this area is to become accredited by the new British Standard BS7750 Specification for Environmental Management Systems. Others are expressing concern that such systems are cumbersome to operate and generate a needless level of bureaucracy and additional unwelcome paperwork.This paper briefly discusses the responsibilities of further and higher education institutions with regard to environmental management and outlines one possible alternative to the BS7750 approach, the Confederation of British Industry (CBI) Environment Initiative. It also outlines the approach taken by the University of Strathclyde over the past three years in the development of an environmental management manual for the Estates Management Department and the development of a system to control university-wide environmental management.In conclusion this paper will focus on the suitability of BS7750 systems within further and higher education institutions in comparison with the approach adopted in the CBI Environment Initiative.This paper was first presented at Global Forum '94 Academic Conference Towards a Sustainable Future: Promoting Sustainable Development, Manchester, UK.Mr K. McDonach is a research assistant and Dr P. Yaneske is Director in the Safety and Environmental Management Unit of the University of Strathclyde.     

Evaluating aquacultural use of thermal effluents: An application of system dynamics to environmental problem solving

Given the ecological burden imposed by power plants located in the coastal zone, efforts to improve the marginal benefits realized from their operation are warranted. Indeed, if this source of environmental pollution can be utilized to compensate for past ecological damage, then the benefits will be magnified many-fold.This study addresses the economic feasibility of utilizing heated effluent water from power plants to invigorate the growth of oysters raised under controlled conditions. The preliminary findings indicate that given proper combinations of system capacity, supplemental nutrient supplies, sea water flow and temperature gradients, such an operation is feasible.This is also a demonstration of a viable application of a sophisticated computer modeling approach to environmental problems. System Dynamics a technique pioneered at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, is applied to evaluate the physical, biological, and economic interrelationships of the aquacultural system variables. It offers many advantages for the environmental manager and researcher, a number of which are realized in the present investigation.