The study on biomass fraction estimate methodology of municipal solid waste incinerator in Korea

In Korea, the amount of greenhouse gases released due to waste materials was 14,800,000 t CO₂eq in 2012, which increased from 5,000,000 t CO₂eq in 2010. This included the amount released due to incineration, which has gradually increased since 2010. Incineration was found to be the biggest contributor to greenhouse gases, with 7,400,000 t CO₂eq released in 2012. Therefore, with regards to the trading of greenhouse gases emissions initiated in 2015 and the writing of the national inventory report, it is important to increase the reliability of the measurements related to the incineration of waste materials.

This research explored methods for estimating the biomass fraction at Korean MSW incinerator facilities and compared the biomass fractions obtained with the different biomass fraction estimation methods. The biomass fraction was estimated by the method using default values of fossil carbon fraction suggested by IPCC, the method using the solid waste composition, and the method using incinerator flue gas.

The highest biomass fractions in Korean municipal solid waste incinerator facilities were estimated by the IPCC Default method, followed by the MSW analysis method and the Flue gas analysis method. Therefore, the difference in the biomass fraction estimate was the greatest between the IPCC Default and the Flue gas analysis methods. The difference between the MSW analysis and the flue gas analysis methods was smaller than the difference with IPCC Default method. This suggested that the use of the IPCC default method cannot reflect the characteristics of Korean waste incinerator facilities and Korean MSW.

Implications: Incineration is one of most effective methods for disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW). This paper investigates the applicability of using biomass content to estimate the amount of CO₂ released, and compares the biomass contents determined by different methods in order to establish a method for estimating biomass in the MSW incinerator facilities of Korea. After analyzing the biomass contents of the collected solid waste samples and the flue gas samples, the results were compared with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) method, and it seems that to calculate the biomass fraction it is better to use the flue gas analysis method than the IPCC method. It is valuable to design and operate a real new incineration power plant, especially for the estimation of greenhouse gas emissions.     

Application of life cycle assessment for hospital solid waste management: A case study

This study was meant to determine environmental aspects of hospital waste management scenarios using a life cycle analysis approach. The survey for this study was conducted at the largest hospital in a major city of Pakistan. The hospital was thoroughly analyzed from November 2014 to January 2015 to quantify its wastes by category. The functional unit of the study was selected as 1 tonne of disposable solid hospital waste. System boundaries included transportation of hospital solid waste and its treatment and disposal by landfilling, incineration, composting, and material recycling methods. These methods were evaluated based on their greenhouse gas emissions. Landfilling and incineration turned out to be the worst final disposal alternatives, whereas composting and material recovery displayed savings in emissions. An integrated system (composting, incineration, and material recycling) was found as the best solution among the evaluated scenarios. This study can be used by policymakers for the formulation of an integrated hospital waste management plan.

Implications: This study deals with environmental aspects of hospital waste management scenarios. It is an increasing area of concern in many developing and resource-constrained countries of the world. The life cycle analysis (LCA) approach is a useful tool for estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from different waste management activities. There is a shortage of information in existing literature regarding LCA of hospital wastes. To the best knowledge of the authors this work is the first attempt at quantifying the environmental footprint of hospital waste in Pakistan.     

Anaerobic digestion of thermal-alkaline–pretreated cephalosporin bacterial residues for methane production

Optimum anaerobic conditions of cephalosporin bacterial residues after thermal-alkaline pretreatment were determined by orthogonal experiments. And through biochemical methane potential tests (BMPs) for cephalosporin bacterial residues, the ability for bacterial degradation of cephalosporin was also evaluated. The thermal-alkaline pretreatment with the optimum values of 6% NaOH at 105 °C for 15 min significantly improved digestion performance. With the thermal-alkaline pretreatment, the specific methane yield of the pretreated cephalosporin bacterial residue increased by 254.79% compared with that of the un-pretreated cephalosporin bacterial residue. The results showed that anaerobic digestion of thermal-alkaline–pretreated cephalosporin bacterial residues could be one of the options for efficient methane production and waste treatment.

Implications: This work investigates the thermal-alkaline pretreatment of cephalosporin bacterial residues, which can increase their methane yield by 254.79% compared with no pretreatment. The digestion performance is significantly improved under the condition of 6% NaOH at 105 °C for 15 min. The results show that anaerobic digestion of thermal-alkaline–pretreated cephalosporin bacterial residues could be one of the options for efficient methane production and waste treatment.     

Validation of a new method for measuring and continuously monitoring the efficiency of industrial flares

A new method has been developed for a direct and remote measurement of industrial flare combustion efficiency (CE). The method is based on a unique hyper-spectral or multi-spectral Infrared (IR) imager which provides a high frame rate, high spectral selectivity and high spatial resolution. The method can be deployed for short-term flare studies or for permanent installation providing real-time continuous flare CE monitoring.

In addition to the measurement of CE, the method also provides a measurement for level of smoke in the flare flame regardless of day or night. The measurements of both CE and smoke level provide the flare operator with a real-time tool to achieve “incipient smoke point” and optimize flare performance.

The feasibility of this method was first demonstrated in a bench scale test. The method was recently tested on full scale flares along with extractive sampling methods to validate the method. The full scale test included three types of flares – steam assisted, air assisted, and pressure assisted. Thirty-nine test runs were performed covering a CE range of approximately 60-100%. The results from the new method showed a strong agreement with the extractive methods (r²=0.9856 and average difference in CE measurement=0.5%).

Implications: Because industrial flares are operated in the open atmosphere, direct measurement of flare combustion efficiency (CE) has been a long-standing technological challenge. Currently flare operators do not have feedback in terms of flare CE and smoke level, and it is extremely difficult for them to optimize flare performance and reduce emissions. The new method reported in this paper could provide flare operators with real-time data for CE and smoke level so that flare operations can be optimized. In light of EPA’s focus on flare emissions and its new rules to reduce emissions from flares, this policy-relevant development in flare CE monitoring is brought to the attention of both the regulating and regulated communities.     

Public health and components of particulate matter: The changing assessment of black carbon

In 2012, the WHO classified diesel emissions as carcinogenic, and its European branch suggested creating a public health standard for airborne black carbon (BC). In 2011, EU researchers found that life expectancy could be extended four to nine times by reducing a unit of BC, vs reducing a unit of PM_2.5. Only recently could such determinations be made. Steady improvements in research methodologies now enable such judgments.

In this Critical Review, we survey epidemiological and toxicological literature regarding carbonaceous combustion emissions, as research methodologies improved over time. Initially, we focus on studies of BC, diesel, and traffic emissions in the Western countries (where daily urban BC emissions are mainly from diesels). We examine effects of other carbonaceous emissions, e.g., residential burning of biomass and coal without controls, mainly in developing countries.

Throughout the 1990s, air pollution epidemiology studies rarely included species not routinely monitored. As additional PM_2.5. chemical species, including carbonaceous species, became more widely available after 1999, they were gradually included in epidemiological studies. Pollutant species concentrations which more accurately reflected subject exposure also improved models.

Natural “interventions” - reductions in emissions concurrent with fuel changes or increased combustion efficiency; introduction of ventilation in highway tunnels; implementation of electronic toll payment systems – demonstrated health benefits of reducing specific carbon emissions. Toxicology studies provided plausible biological mechanisms by which different PM species, e.g., carbonaceous species, may cause harm, aiding interpretation of epidemiological studies.

Our review finds that BC from various sources appears to be causally involved in all-cause, lung cancer, and cardiovascular mortality, morbidity, and perhaps adverse birth and nervous system effects. We recommend that the U.S. EPA rubric for judging possible causality of PM_2.5. mass concentrations, be used to assess which PM_2.5. species are most harmful to public health.

Implications: Black carbon (BC) and correlated co-emissions appear causally related with all-cause, cardiovascular, and lung cancer mortality, and perhaps with adverse birth outcomes and central nervous system effects. Such findings are recent, since widespread monitoring for BC is also recent. Helpful epidemiological advances (using many health relevant PM_2.5 species in models; using better measurements of subject exposure) have also occurred. “Natural intervention” studies also demonstrate harm from partly combusted carbonaceous emissions. Toxicology studies consistently find biological mechanisms explaining how such emissions can cause these adverse outcomes. A consistent mechanism for judging causality for different PM_2.5 species is suggested.

A list of acronyms will be found at the end of the article.     

Effect of potassium hydroxide activation in the desulfurization process of activated carbon prepared by sewage sludge and corn straw

Series sludge straw–based activated carbons were prepared by sewage sludge and corn straw with potassium hydroxide (KOH) activation, and the desulfurization performance of activated carbons was studied. To obtain the best desulfurization performance, the optimum ratio between the raw materials and the activator was investigated. The results showed that when the mass ratio of sewage sludge, corn straw, and KOH was 3:7:2, the activated carbon obtained the best breakthrough and saturation sulfur sorption capacities, which were 12.38 and 5.74 times, respectively, those of samples prepared by the nonactivated raw materials. The appropriate KOH could improve the microporosity and alkaline groups, meanwhile reducing the lactone groups, which were all beneficial to desulfurization performance. The chemical adsorption process of desulfurization can be simplified to four main steps, and the main desulfurization products are elemental sulfur and sulfate.

Implications: Sewage sludge (SS) and corn straw (CS) both have great production and wide distribution and are readily available in China. Much attention has been paid on how to deal with them effectively. Based on the environment protection idea of waste treatment with waste and resource recycling, low-cost adsorbents were prepared by these processes. The proposed method can be expanded to the municipal solid waste recycling programs and renewable energy plan. Thus, proceeding with the study of preparing activated carbon by SS and straw as a carbon-based dry desulfurization agent could obtain huge social, economic, and environmental benefits.     

Current Status of Home Medical Care Waste Collection by Nurses in Japan

A questionnaire survey was conducted to determine the current status of home medical care (HMC) waste collection by nurses for individual items and whether the collection rate differs with city size. The questionnaire was mailed to 1,022 nursing offices, of which 645 offices provided valid responses. Offices were classified into three groups according to the local population size. Responses indicated that used syringes and needles, except for pen-type self-injection needles, were collected by >50% of HMC nurses. On the other hand, enteral nutrients, nutritional adjustment diet vessels, feeding tubes, portable injectors, ventilator masks, endotracheal suction catheters, tracheal cannulas, continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) bags, and urinary catheters and bags had a low collection rate in comparison with syringes or needles. The collection percentage of used syringes, needles, and infusion needles (p < 0.05) and that for infusion bags, tubes, and catheters (p < 0.001) differed among the three population groups. Although municipalities are responsible for collect all HMC waste, sharp or infectious items should be collected by HMC doctors or nurses. On the contrary, nonhazardous HMC waste should be collected by municipalities.

Implications: This paper illustrates the status of waste collection of individual home medical care (HMC) items by HMC nurses. Infectious waste, such as needles and syringes, is collected by nurses. The collection rate of infectious waste by nurses in large cities was low compared with that in small cities. Although municipalities are responsible for collecting all HMC waste, sharp or infectious items should be collected by HMC doctors or nurses, whereas nonhazardous HMC waste should be collected by the municipalities.     

Wastewater and sludge management and research in Oman: An overview

It is well recognized that management of wastewater and sludge is a critical environmental issue in many countries. Wastewater treatment and sludge production take place under different technical, economic, and social contexts, thus requiring different approaches and involving different solutions. In most cases, a regular and environmentally safe wastewater treatment and associated sludge management requires the development of realistic and enforceable regulations, as well as treatment systems appropriate to local circumstances. The main objective of this paper is to provide useful information about the current wastewater and sludge treatment, management, regulations, and research in Oman. Based on the review and discussion, the wastewater treatment and sludge management in Oman has been evolving over the years. Further, the land application of sewage sludge should encourage revision of existing standards, regulations, and policies for the management and beneficial use of sewage sludge in Oman.

Implications: Wastewater treatment and sludge management in Oman have been evolving over the years. Sludge utilization has been a challenge due to its association with human waste. Therefore, composting of sewage sludge is the best option in agriculture activities. Sludge and wastewater utilization can add up positively in the economic aspects of the country in terms of creating jobs and improving annual income rate. The number of research projects done on wastewater reuse and other ongoing ones related to the land application of sewage sludge should encourage revision of existing standards, regulations, and policies for the management and beneficial use of sewage sludge in Oman.     

Siting a municipal solid waste disposal facility,Part II: The effects of external criteria on the final decision

The procedure of a multi-criteria decision analysis supported by the geographic information systems was applied to the site selection process of a planning municipal solid waste management practice based on twelve different scenarios. The scenarios included two different decision tree modes and two different weighting models for three different area requirements. The suitability rankings of the suitable sites obtained from the application of the decision procedure for the scenarios were assessed by a factorial experimental design concerning the effect of some external criteria on the final decision of the site selection process. The external criteria used in the factorial experimental design were defined as “Risk perception and approval of stakeholders” and “Visibility”. The effects of the presence of these criteria in the decision trees were evaluated in detail. For a quantitative expression of the differentiations observed in the suitability rankings, the ranking data were subjected to ANOVA test after a normalization process. Then the results of these tests were evaluated by Tukey test to measure the effects of external criteria on the final decision. The results of Tukey tests indicated that the involvement of the external criteria into the decision trees produced statistically meaningful differentiations in the suitability rankings. Since the external criteria could cause considerable external costs during the operation of the disposal facilities, the presence of these criteria in the decision tree in addition to the other criteria related to environmental and legislative requisites could prevent subsequent external costs in the first place.

Implications:

An experimental design was applied to a siting process based on different scenarios. The suitability rankings of suitable sites were obtained for each scenario. The external criteria used in the design were defined as perception and visibility. The presence of the external criteria produced meaningful differentiations. Two widespread persuasions about site selection were disproved using the results.     

An interpretive structural modeling (ISM) and decision-making trail and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL) method approach for the analysis of barriers of waste recycling in India

Increasing amount of wastes is posing great difficulties for all countries across the world. The problem of waste management is more severe in developing countries such as India where the rates of economic growth and urbanization are increasing at a fast pace. The governments in these countries are often constrained by limited technical and financial capabilities, which prevent them from effectively addressing these problems. There is a limited participation from the private players too in terms of setting up of waste recycling units. The present study aims at identifying various barriers that challenge the establishment of these units, specific to India. Further, it attempts to identify the most influential barriers by utilizing multicriterion decision-making tools of interpretive structural modeling (ISM) and decision-making trail and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL). The findings of the study suggest that the lack of funds, input material, and subsidy are the most influential barriers that are needed to be addressed for the development of waste recycling infrastructure in India.

Implications: This work has been carried out to address the problem of proper waste management in India. To deal with this problem, the method of waste recycling has been felt appropriate by the government of various countries, including India. Therefore, the barriers that play vital role in waste recycling for private players have been identified and their importance has been established with the help of ISM and DEMATEL methods. Doing so will assist the government to take appropriate steps for the betterment of waste recycling infrastructure in India and enhance waste management.     

Characterization of temporal variations in landfill gas components inside an open solid waste dump site in Sri Lanka

A long-term monitoring of composition of landfill gases in the region with high rainfall was conducted using an argon assay in order to discuss air intrusion into the dump site. Gas samples were taken from vertical gas monitoring pipes installed along transects at two sections (called new and old) of an abandoned waste dump site in Sri Lanka. N₂O concentrations varied especially widely, by more than three orders of magnitude (0.046–140 ppmv). The nitrogen/argon ratio of landfill gas was normally higher than that of fresh air, implying that denitrification occurred in the dump site. Argon assays indicate that both N₂ and N₂O production occurred inside waste and more significantly in the old section. The Ar assay would help for evaluations of N₂O emission in developing countries.

Implications: A long-term monitoring of composition of landfill gases in the region with high rainfall was conducted using an argon assay in order to discuss air intrusion into the dump site. Argon assays indicate that both N₂ and N₂O production occurred inside waste and more significantly in the old section.     

Production of granular activated carbon from food-processing wastes (walnut shells and jujube seeds) and its adsorptive properties

Commercial activated carbon is a highly effective absorbent that can be used to remove micropollutants from water. As a result, the demand for activated carbon is increasing. In this study, we investigated the optimum manufacturing conditions for producing activated carbon from ligneous wastes generated from food processing. Jujube seeds and walnut shells were selected as raw materials. Carbonization and steam activation were performed in a fixed-bed laboratory electric furnace. To obtain the highest iodine number, the optimum conditions for producing activated carbon from jujube seeds and walnut shells were 2 hr and 1.5 hr (carbonization at 700°C) followed by 1 hr and 0.5 hr (activation at 1000°C), respectively. The surface area and iodine number of activated carbon made from jujube seeds and walnut shells were 1,477 and 1,184 m²/g and 1,450 and 1,200 mg/g, respectively. A pore-distribution analysis revealed that most pores had a pore diameter within or around 30–40 Å, and adsorption capacity for surfactants was about 2 times larger than the commercial activated carbon, indicating that waste-based activated carbon can be used as alternative.

Implications:Wastes discharged from agricultural and food industries results in a serious environmental problem. A method is proposed to convert food-processing wastes such as jujube seeds and walnut shells into high-grade granular activated carbon. Especially, the performance of jujube seeds as activated carbon is worthy of close attention. There is little research about the application of jujube seeds. Also, when compared to two commercial carbons (Samchully and Calgon samples), the results show that it is possible to produce high-quality carbon, particularly from jujube seed, using a one-stage, 1,000°C, steam pyrolysis. The preparation of activated carbon from food-processing wastes could increase economic return and reduce pollution.     

Long-term dust aerosol production from natural sources in Iceland

Iceland is a volcanic island in the North Atlantic Ocean with maritime climate. In spite of moist climate, large areas are with limited vegetation cover where >40% of Iceland is classified with considerable to very severe erosion and 21% of Iceland is volcanic sandy deserts. Not only do natural emissions from these sources influenced by strong winds affect regional air quality in Iceland (“Reykjavik haze”), but dust particles are transported over the Atlantic ocean and Arctic Ocean >1000 km at times. The aim of this paper is to place Icelandic dust production area into international perspective, present long-term frequency of dust storm events in northeast Iceland, and estimate dust aerosol concentrations during reported dust events.

Meteorological observations with dust presence codes and related visibility were used to identify the frequency and the long-term changes in dust production in northeast Iceland. There were annually 16.4 days on average with reported dust observations on weather stations within the northeastern erosion area, indicating extreme dust plume activity and erosion within the northeastern deserts, even though the area is covered with snow during the major part of winter. During the 2000s the highest occurrence of dust events in six decades was reported. We have measured saltation and Aeolian transport during dust/volcanic ash storms in Iceland, which give some of the most intense wind erosion events ever measured.

Icelandic dust affects the ecosystems over much of Iceland and causes regional haze. It is likely to affect the ecosystems of the oceans around Iceland, and it brings dust that lowers the albedo of the Icelandic glaciers, increasing melt-off due to global warming. The study indicates that Icelandic dust may contribute to the Arctic air pollution.

Implications: Long-term records of meteorological dust observations from Northeast Iceland indicate the frequency of dust events from Icelandic deserts. The research involves a 60-year period and provides a unique perspective of the dust aerosol production from natural sources in the sub-Arctic Iceland. The amounts are staggering, and with this paper, it is clear that Icelandic dust sources need to be considered among major global dust sources. This paper presents the dust events directly affecting the air quality in the Arctic region.     

Manganese-cerium oxide (MnOx-CeO2) catalysts supported by titanium-bearing blast furnace slag for selective catalytic reduction of nitric oxide with ammonia at low temperature

A series of manganese-cerium oxide (MnO_x-CeO₂) catalysts supported by Ti-bearing blast furnace slag were prepared by wet impregnation and used for low-temperature selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NO with NH₃. The slag-based catalyst exhibited high nitrogen oxide removal (deNO_x) activity and wide effective temperature range. Under the condition of NO = 500 ppm, NH₃ = 500 ppm, O₂ = 7–8 vol%, and total flow rate = 1600 mL/min, the Mn-Ce/Slag catalyst exhibited a NO conversion higher than 95% in the range of 180–260 °C. The activity of Mn/Slag catalysts was greatly enhanced with the addition of CeO₂. The results indicated that Ti-bearing blast furnace slag had suitable phase composition as good support of SCR catalyst.

Implications: Ti-bearing blast furnace slag is a kind of industrial waste in China. Much slag was underused and piling up, which could cause many environmental issues, such as enormous waste of titanium and groundwater and soil contamination by heavy metals in leachates. The utilization of slag as the support of SCR catalyst will not only make use of solid waste but also cut down the NO_x emitted from power plant.     

Evaluation of gas well setback policy in the Marcellus Shale region of Pennsylvania in relation to emissions of fine particulate matter

Shale gas has become an important strategic energy source with considerable potential economic benefits and the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in so far as it displaces coal use. However, there still exist environmental health risks caused by emissions from exploration and production activities. In the United States, states and localities have set different minimum setback policies to reduce the health risks corresponding to the emissions from these locations, but it is unclear whether these policies are sufficient. This study uses a Gaussian plume model to evaluate the probability of exposure exceedance from EPA concentration limits for PM2.5 at various locations around a generic wellsite in the Marcellus shale region. A set of meteorological data monitored at ten different stations across Marcellus shale gas region in Pennsylvania during 2015 serves as an input to this model. Results indicate that even though the current setback distance policy in Pennsylvania (500 ft. or 152.4 m) might be effective in some cases, exposure limit exceedance occurs frequently at this distance with higher than average emission rates and/or greater number of wells per wellpad. Setback distances should be 736 m to ensure compliance with the daily average concentration of PM2.5, and a function of the number of wells to comply with the annual average PM2.5 exposure standard.

Implications: The Marcellus Shale gas is known as a significant source of criteria pollutants and studies show that the current setback distance in Pennsylvania is not adequate to protect the residents from exceeding the established limits. Even an effective setback distance to meet the annual exposure limit may not be adequate to meet the daily limit. The probability of exceeding the annual limit increases with number of wells per site. We use a probabilistic dispersion model to introduce a technical basis to select appropriate setback distances.     

The dissolution kinetics of industrial brine sludge wastes from a chlor-alkali industry as a sorbent for wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD)

The disposal of industrial brine sludge waste (IBSW) in chlor-alkali plants can be avoided by utilization of IBSW as a sorbent in wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD). The shrinking core model was used to determine the dissolution kinetics of IBSW, which is a vital step in wet FGD. The effects of solid-to-liquid ratio (m/v), temperature, pH, particle size, and stirring speed on the conversion and dissolution rate constant are determined. The conversion and dissolution rate constant decreases as the pH, particle size, and solid-to-liquid ratio are increased and increases as the temperature, concentration of acid, and stirring speed are increased. The sorbents before and after dissolution were characterized using x-ray fluorescence (XRF), x-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). An activation energy of 7.195 kJ/mol was obtained and the product layer diffusion model was found to be the rate-controlling step.

Implications: The use of industrial brine sludge waste as an alternative sorbent in wet flue gas desulfurization can reduce the amounts of industrial wastes disposed of in landfills. This study has proved that the sorbent can contain up to 91% calcium carbonate and trace amounts of sulfate, magnesium, and so on. This can be used as new sorbent to reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere and the by-product gypsum can be used in construction, as a plaster ingredient, as a fertilizer, and for soil conditioning. Therefore, the sorbent has both economic and environmental benefits.     

Pollution characterization of liquid waste of the factory complex Fertial (Arzew,Algeria)

The industrial development in Algeria has made a worrying situation for all socioeconomic stakeholders. Indeed, this economic growth is marked in recent years by the establishment of factories and industrial plants that discharge liquid waste in marine shorelines. These releases could destabilize the environmental balance in the coming years, hence the need to support the processing of all sources of pollution. Remediation of such discharges requires several steps of identifying the various pollutants to their treatments. Therefore, the authors conducted this first work of characterization of industrial effluents generated by the mineral fertilizer factory complex Fertial (Arzew), and discussed the pollution load generated by this type of industry. This monitoring would establish a tool for reflection and decision support developed by a management system capable of ensuring effective and sustainable management of effluents from industrial activities of Fertial.

Implications: The authors conducted this first work of characterization of industrial effluents generated by the mineral fertilizer factory complex Fertial (Arzew), and discussed the pollution load generated by this type of industry. This monitoring would establish a tool for reflection and decision support developed by a management system capable of ensuring effective and sustainable management of effluents from industrial activities of Fertial.     

Investigating motivating factors for sound hospital waste management

Sustainable management of hospital waste requires an active involvement of all key players. This study aims to test the hypothesis that three motivating factors, namely, Reputation, Liability, and Expense, influence hospital waste management. The survey for this study was conducted in two phases, with the pilot study used for exploratory factor analysis and the subsequent main survey used for cross-validation using confirmatory factor analysis. The hypotheses were validated through one-sample t tests. Correlations were established between the three motivating factors and organizational characteristics of hospital type, location, category, and size. The hypotheses were validated, and it was found that the factors of Liability and Expense varied considerably with respect to location and size of a hospital. The factor of Reputation, however, did not exhibit significant variation. In conclusion, concerns about the reputation of a facility and an apprehension of liability act as incentives for sound hospital waste management, whereas concerns about financial costs and perceived overburden on staff act as disincentives.

Implications: This paper identifies the non economic motivating factors that can be used to encourage behavioral changes regarding waste management at hospitals in resource constrained environments. This study discovered that organizational characteristics such as hospital size and location cause the responses to vary among the subjects. Hence a policy maker must take into account the institutional setting before introducing a change geared towards better waste management outcomes across hospitals. This study covers a topic that has hitherto been neglected in resource constrained countries. Thus it can be used as one of the first steps to highlight and tackle the issue.     

Impact of an educational program on knowledge and practice of health care staff toward pharmaceutical waste management in Gaza,Palestine

In health care facilities, pharmaceutical waste is generally discharged down the drain or sent to landfill. Poor knowledge about their potential downstream impacts may be a primary factor for improper disposal behavior. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of an intervention program on knowledge and practice of health care staff regarding pharmaceutical waste management. The study was designed as a pre/posttest intervention study. Total sample size was 530 in the pre-intervention phase, and then a subsample of 69 individuals was selected for the intervention and the post-intervention phases. Paired-sample t test was used to assess the difference between pretest and follow-up test results. A statistically significant improvement in knowledge and practice was achieved (P < 0.001). Poor knowledge and poor practice levels (scores <50%) were found to improve to satisfactory levels (scores ≥75%). Therefore, educational programs could be considered as an effective tool for changing health care staff practice in pharmaceutical waste management.

Implications: In health care facilities, pharmaceutical waste is generally discharged down the drain or sent to landfill. A lack of knowledge about the potential impacts of this type of waste may be a leading factor in improper disposal behavior. Following an educational program, statistically significant improvement in knowledge and practice of health care staff as regards to pharmaceutical waste management (PWM) was achieved. It is thus recommended that authorities implement training-of-trainers (TOT) programs to educate health care staff on PWM and organize refreshment workshops regularly.