Horizontal and vertical trends in the distributions of larval fishes in coastal waters off central New South Wales,Australia

Larval fishes were sampled across six transects perpendicular to a 50 km section of the coast off Sydney, Australia, in April/May and August/September 1990. Samples were collected at the surface and at depth (20 to 30 m) at three locations across each transect; over the 30, 70 and 100 m depth contours. There was a large level of heterogeneity in the horizontal and vertical distributions of most taxa examined, and no general pattern of distribution was evident for the whole assemblage. Classification analyses revealed that the major differences between assemblages were related to depth. Horizontal trends in the distributions of the abundant taxa were evident in the inshore-offshore direction, but not longshore. Seven taxa belonging to the families Gobiidae, Labridae, Sillaginidae, Sparidae, Ambassidae, Clupeidae and Clinidae/Tripterygiidae were most abundant inshore, whereas 4 taxa of the families Cepolidae, Percichthyidae, Cheilodactylidae and Gonorynchidae were generally more abundant offshore and 24 taxa showed no discrete horizontal trends across transects. More taxa and individuals were generally caught at depth than at the surface and this was evident across all transects. Twenty taxa were more numerous at depth, whereas 4 taxa, the Cheilodactylidae, Gonorynchidae, Mullidae and Scorpididae, were most abundant at the surface and 11 taxa showed no difference in densities between depths. Ontogenetic differences in the distributions of some larvae were evident. The mean size of larval Liza argentea (Mulgilidae) caught was greater offshore than inshore, and greater at the surface than at depth. In contrast, larger Pseudocaranx dentex (Carangidae) occurred in greater numbers at depth than at the surface. The data emphasise that the assemblages of larval fishes in coastal waters off central New South Wales cannot be modelled as a single unit, which concurs with the findings in other temperate and tropical vaters. Furthermore, the data denote the need to spatially stratify sampling in these waters in order to assess seasonal changes in these assemblages.     

Resource partitioning by four species of elasmobranchs (Batoidea: Urolophidae) in coastal waters of temperate Australia

Four species of stingarees (Urolophus lobatus, U. paucimaculatus, Trygonoptera personata and T. mucosa) were abundant in samples collected from over sandy substrates in four regions along ∼200 km of the lower west coast of Australia in each season between summer 1990/1991 and winter 1992. The main aim of this study was to determine whether these four species were segregated by habitat, size, sex and/or diet, thereby reducing the potential for intra- and interspecific competition. The densities of U. lobatus and T. personata were almost invariably greater in deep, offshore waters (20 to 35 m) than in shallow, inshore waters (5 to 15 m), while those of U. paucimaculatus were greatest in the southernmost region, irrespective of depth, and those of T. mucosa were highest at the single inshore site at which the water was deep. None of these species was segregated by either size or sex. The volumetric dietary compositions of the two Urolophus species, which consisted predominantly of various crustaceans, and those of the two species of Trygonoptera, which consisted mainly of different polychaetes, were significantly different from each other. The two Urolophus species initially fed largely on amphipods, mysids and carid decapods but, with increasing size, U. lobatus started to ingest teleosts and U. paucimaculatus commenced feeding on errant polychaetes and penaeid decapods. The contribution of errant polychaetes to the diets of T. personata rose progressively from 0% in the smallest fish to 90% in the largest fish, thereby accounting for a concomitant progressive decline in dietary breadth and for intraspecific dietary overlap typically to occur only between successive size classes. In contrast, the volumetric contribution of sedentary polychaetes to the diets of T. mucosa remained high (65 to 80%) throughout life, which accounts for the relatively low and constant dietary breadth of most size classes and a significant overlap in the diets of all but one pair of size classes. The diets of each of the four stingaree species occasionally differed between sites and sometimes underwent seasonal changes, presumably reflecting spatial and temporal differences in the types of prey in the environment. Since the ratios of benthic to epibenthic prey in the diets of the two Trygonoptera species were greater than in those of the two Urolophus species, the first two species apparently forage deeper into the substrate. The combination of partial segregation of the four stingaree species among habitats and the differences in the dietary compositions and feeding strategies of these species, would presumably facilitate the co-existence of these batoid elasmobranchs when they are abundant in the same general region. Received: 29 October 1997 / Accepted: 25 March 1998     

Brevetoxins in sharks and rays (Chondrichthyes, Elasmobranchii) from Florida coastal waters

In October 2000, a mass mortality of blacktip sharks (Carcharhinus limbatus) and Atlantic sharpnose sharks (Rhizoprionodon terraenovae) in northwest Florida occurred in conjunction with a Karenia brevis red tide bloom. Before this incident, no information existed on red tide-induced shark mortalities or baseline brevetoxin levels in sharks and rays from red tide-endemic areas. We report here that brevetoxin accumulation in live and red tide-killed elasmobranchs is common during K. brevis blooms and non-bloom periods. Strong relationships were found between the frequency of red tide blooms and the average brevetoxin concentrations in elasmobranch tissues. The presence of brevetoxins in Atlantic coast sharks in the absence of documented K. brevis blooms may suggest that blooms are occurring in areas that are not well monitored. Although red tide-related shark mortalities are rarely observed, the presence of brevetoxins in shark embryos raises questions about the effects these toxins may have on the reproductive success of sharks.     

Inter-annual variability in somatic growth rates and mortality of coastal fishes off central Chile: an ENSO driven process?

The effects of El Niño (EN) and La Niña (LN) events upon marine organisms inhabiting the Eastern Pacific coast have been widely studied in recent years, concentrating primarily on changes in species composition and on population size. In this study, using somatic growth rates as metabolic response variables, we evaluated the mortality rates of coastal fishes inhabiting a central Chilean upwelling marine ecosystem in the South Pacific between 1990 and 2003. Four coastal fish species belonging to different trophic levels (one herbivore, one omnivore, and two carnivores) were analyzed. In all species, the estimated cohort somatic growth rates were low for those recruited during EN and high for those recruited during LN events. Annual cohort mortality rates were highest during EN events and lower during LN and transitional years. We propose that productivity (as a bottom-up driver) acts as a primary exogenous factor upon annual cohort mortality rates. We also propose that a plausible mechanism underlying this process is the negative effect the low somatic growth rates may have on fish ecological attributes such as their competitive abilities, condition factors, and predation risks, which ultimately may affect their fitness.     

Movements of tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) in coastal Hawaiian waters

The giant clam Tridacna crocea harbors in the mantle tissue symbiotic microalgae commonly called zooxanthellae. Isolated zooxanthellae release glycerol into the medium in the presence of mantle tissue homogenate (MH), but it is not clear whether the cells do so in situ. In order to determine the photosynthetic products released by zooxanthellae in the mantle of the giant clam we traced photosynthetic fixation products from ¹³C- and ¹⁴C-bicarbonate both in the clam and in isolated zooxanthellae (IZ) in the presence or absence of MH. After 15 min incubation in the absence of MH the IZ released less than 0.6% of the fixed labeled carbon, mainly as glucose. The major intracellular photosynthates were neutral lipids, which constituted 20 to 40% of the total extractable ¹⁴C. In the presence of MH, the IZ released up to 5.6% of the total fixed ¹⁴C, mostly as glycerol, and the major intracellular photosynthate was glucose. In an intact clam incubated in sea water containing ¹⁴C-bicarbonate, 46 to 80% of the fixed ¹⁴C was translocated from the zooxanthellae to the host tissues. Most of the ¹⁴C in the hemolymph, in the isolated zooxanthellae and in intact mantle tissue (containing zooxanthellae) was recovered as glucose. No ¹⁴C-glycerol was detected in the mantle after 1 to 30 min incubation, and, even after 60 min, far less ¹⁴C-glycerol was synthesized than by IZ in the presence of MH. The possibility that in clam tissue glycerol is converted to glucose was examined by tracing the labeled carbon from ¹⁴C-glycerol injected into the adductor muscle. After 5 min incubation, no labeled glucose was found in the hemolymph, but after 60 min, some 20% was found as glucose. Thin slices containing zooxanthellae, cut from the surface of the mantle, fixed inorganic carbon supplied as NaH¹⁴CO₃ in the medium and mainly released ¹⁴C-glucose. The addition of MH to the surrounding medium did not affect the release rate or form of release product. When the slices were cut into smaller pieces, however, the ratio of glycerol to glucose in the release product increased. These results indicate that in the presence of MH the metabolism of isolated zooxan- thellae was different from that of zooxanthellae in the mantle. In the presence of MH, isolated zooxanthellae release mostly glycerol, whereas in the mantle they release glucose. Received: 18 February 1998 / Accepted: 4 December 1998     

Studies of primary productivity in coastal waters of southern Long Island,New York

Phytoplankton productivity of the tidal estuaries and coastal waters of southern Nassau Country, Long Island, New York, USA was determined monthly at 28 stations during 1966. Diatoms alternated with dinoflagellates in dominating the standing crop in the coastal area. The estuaries were characterized by sustained blooms of green flagellates and dinoflagellates during the spring/summer period, 1966. Chlorophyll a ranged from 1.0 to 27.6 mg/m³ in the estuarine area, and 1.45 to 10.15 mg/m³ in adjacent coastal waters. Rate of phytosynthesis per unit weight chlorophyll a for surface samples in the region under study a veraged from 3.1 to 3.5 mgC/mg chlorophyll a/h. At light saturation, however, the ratio varied according to water temperature and species' composition. Primary productivity decreased seawards, with mean values for 1966 of 0.35, 0.22, and 0.16 gC/m³/d for the estuarine, nearshore and offshore areas, respectively.This study was carried out at the Lamont Geological Observatory of Columbia University Palisades; New York, USA.The study was conducted with financial assistance from Nassau County, New York, and the G. Unger Vetlesen Foundation.     

Larvae of deep-sea fishes (Stomiatoidea) from Biscayne Bay,Florida, USA,and their ecological significance

Twenty stomiatoid fish larvae (3.1 to 21,9 mm) belonging to the genera Bathophilus, Cyclothone, and Stomias were collected in plankton nets from surface waters over depths of 3 to 4 m from Biscayne Bay, Florida, USA. The adults are mesopelagic in the open water of the Florida Current and, therefore, these larvae were presumably advected in parcels of high salinity water into the shallows of Biscayne Bay by winds, tides, or currents. The presence of these larvae suggest that sewage discharged into the Florida Current may be recycling into coastal waters as well as into Biscayne Bay.Scientific Contribution No. 1403, University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science. The support of Environmental Protection Agency Contract FW QA 18050 DIU, Water Quality Office, Division of Water Quality Research is gratefully acknowledged.     

Persistent organochlorine pesticides,polychlorinated biphenyls,polybrominated diphenyl ethers in fish from coastal waters off Savannah,GA, USA

Contamination profiles of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were determined in six fish species from three selected regions along coastal waters off Savannah, GA, USA. Concentrations of PCBs were predominant (12–493 ng g^?1 lw) followed by PBDEs (10–337 ng g^?1 lw), OCPs such as DDTs (2.7–153 ng g^?1 lw), chlordanes (3.8–34 ng g^?1 lw), cyclodienes (<0.1–35 ng g^?1 lw), mirex (<0.1–8.6 ng g^?1 lw), γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (<0.1–1.4 ng g^?1 lw), and hexachlorobenzene (<0.1–0.68 ng g^?1 lw). The results indicated no region-specific difference in the contaminants however inter-species as well as intra-species differences were evident. Comparison of DDTs, PCBs, and PBDEs profiles in fish with those from other countries revealed that fish from coastal waters off Savannah contained relatively less concentrations of PCBs and chlorinated pesticides, while PBDE concentrations were comparable or even higher than fish samples from other regions. Polychlorinated biphenyl congeners and chlorinated pesticide tempoal trend data exhibited no increase of contamination levels. The levels of PCBs and chlorinated pesticides in fish from Savannah coastal waters were below the Food and Drug Administrations (FDA) established limits for human consumption.     

Temporal scales of landscape change following storms on a human-altered coast,New Jersey,USA

Cycles of storm destruction and rebuilding of human facilities are as much a part of a predictable cycle of shoreline change as destruction and re-establishment of landforms and wildlife habitat by natural processes. An evaluation of the human-induced and natural geomorphic responses to three storms in two vulnerable developed areas in New Jersey reveals that storms can have limited effect in re-establishing a natural coastal resource base of lasting significance. Reconstruction of coastal landscapes by human action may be more rapid than natural restoration, decreasing the likelihood for geomorphic features to develop based on natural processes. Reliance on storm processes to create new natural habitat in locations where there is human investment in buildings and support infrastructure is not realistic unless a proactive stance is taken to include naturally-functioning characteristics of the coastal system in reconstruction efforts. By striving to control construction of shorefront buildings to reduce their potential for damage, managers may be taking attention away from the separate but critical issue of ensuring that post-storm reconstruction effort include the potential for replacing loss of natural geomorphic features and wildlife habitat.     

Diet and food preferences of the adult horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus in Delaware Bay,New Jersey,USA

Adult horseshoe crabs Limulus polyphemus (L.) feed on a wide variety of infaunal and epifaunal invertebrates during their spring spawning migration in Delaware Bay, New Jersey, USA. Comparison of the gut contents with estimates of available prey showed that the most abundant potential prey item, the bivalve Gemma gemma, was avoided. The thinner shelled but comparatively scarce clam Mulinia lateralis was a preferred prey item. In the laboratory, crabs fed on G. gemma when it was the only available item but not when M. lateralis or soft-shell clams, Mya arenaria, were offered in conjunction. Large M. lateralis (>10mm) were preferred to small M. lateralis; there was no discrimination between M. lateralis and M. arenaria of the same size. Male and female horseshoe crabs had similar gut contents and laboratory feeding preferences, despite the fact that females are larger than males. Crabs spawning later in the summer contained more food than did crabs collected at the peak of spawning activity.     

The role of human actions in evolution and management of foredunes in The Netherlands and New Jersey, USA

The rationale and methods of construction of foredunes in The Netherlands and New Jersey, USA are identified and used to explain their genesis, locations, mobility, internal and external characteristics and temporal scales of evolution. Dunes are then ranked according to the degree they are modified by human processes. The lower level of protection required of foredunes in New Jersey and the greater amount of modification by municipal managers and shorefront residents results in smaller dunes and greater variety of sizes, shapes, methods of construction and alterations. As a result, humans are considered intrinsic agents in evolution of dune landforms and landscapes. Higher, wider, better vegetated foredunes occur in The Netherlands due to greater frequency of onshore winds and greater emphasis on sea defence at the national level. Natural processes play a greater role in the evolution of landforms. Human actions are considered extrinsic at this scale but intrinsic at the scale of landscapes. The change in foredunes from natural features to artifacts reveals the significance of humans in the modification of coastal landforms and reflects the changing perception of the role of these landforms in the coastal landscape.     

Asymptotic growth trajectories of larval sardine (Sardinops melanostictus ) in the coastal waters off western Japan

Growth trajectories of individual larvae of Japanese sardine, Sardinops melanostictus, caught in the coastal waters off western Japan were back-calculated from the first feeding stage up to date of capture (approximate size of 20 to 35 mm total length; TL) based on individually determined allometric relationships between otolith daily ring radii and fish total lengths. The larvae in January-, February-, and March-hatched cohorts in the coastal waters grew faster and more uniformly than those in the oceanic waters offshore of the Kuroshio current. Growth trajectories of the three hatch-month cohorts were similar and could be expressed by the Gompertz model. The inflection points of the growth curves were reached at 9 to 11 d after hatching, when larvae were 10.8 to 11.8 mm TL. Maximum growth rates at these points were 0.80 to 0.85 mm d⁻¹. Growth rates gradually declined after the inflection points, and larval TLs converged into the infinite length of 29 to 32 mm, the sizes at which metamorphosis from larvae to juveniles is initiated. This asymptotic growth pattern in the larval stage resulted in the narrow ranges in TLs in spite of the wide range of ages of the larvae caught by boat seiners in the coastal waters. Slow growth and therefore long duration of the metamorphosing stage could be influential in determining the cumulative total mortality in the early life stages of the Japanese sardine. Received: 14 July 1996 / Accepted: 20 August 1996     

Hydrography and distribution dynamics of larval and juvenile fishes in the coastal waters of the Tanshui River estuary,Taiwan, with reference to estuarine larval transport

Distribution dynamics of fish larvae and juveniles in the coastal waters of the Tanshui River, Taiwan was studied fortnightly using surface horizontal tows with a larval net in daytime during the period from early April through early June 1991. Environmental factors, including water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH, transparency and depth at sampling stations, were also monitored. A total of 10737 fish eggs and 1387 individuals, representing 43 families and 93 species, was collected during five cruises from 12 stations in the coastal waters. Most fish were estuarine-dependent marine species. Liza macrolepis, Ambassis gymnocephalus, Terapon jarbua, Mullidae and Gobiidae were the most dominant, making up 64.7% of the total catch. Early life stages, including egg, preflexion, flexion and postflexion larvae were abundant in surface samples. However, yolk-sac larvae were absent in the surface water, probably due to an ontogenetic behavioral shift as a consequence of a change in specific weight during early development. The species composition of fish larvae and juveniles was related to the microhabitats found in the coastal waters. The physico-chemical conditions, along with ontogenetic behavior, played an important role in larval fish distribution in the coastal waters.     

Importance of picocyanobacteria biomass (unicellular,blue-green algae) in the phytoplankton population of the coastal waters off Japan

Picocyanobacteria, which specifically excited the phycobilin pigments by green light, were numerically counted under an epifluorescence microscope in the Kuroshio and the Oyashio between 1 and 9 July 1983, and in coastal waters between 10 and 12 August 1983 off Japan. The fluorescence, and the various morphological and chemical characters of the picocyanobacteria were evaluated by using monospecific strains isolated from the study area. Plasma volume determined on the epifluorescence microscopic photographs was converted into cellular organic carbon using a relation obtained from the isolates. Percentages of the picocyanobacteria biomass in terms of cellular carbon ranged between 8.3 to 79.4% of the total picophytoplankton (<3 m), and between 4.7 to 46.4% of the total phytoplankton. The larger percentages of the picocyanobacteria occurred consistently in low chlorophyll waters.     

Feeding behavior of some carnivorous fishes (Serranidae and Scorpaenidae) from Tuléar (Madagascar)

The feeding behavior of 8 species of sea basses (Serranidae) and 17 species of scorpionfish (Scorpaenidae) has been studied by quantitative analysis of their stomach contents. Most of the 459 specimens analysed were collected from the barrier reef of Tuléar (Madagascar). Examination of stomach contents revealed that in each species feeding behavior varies according to a nyctemeral rhythm, individual size of specimens, biotope and geographical area. Prey consumption by sea basses and scorpionfish on a reef tract is discussed in general terms.     

Water quality in the Red Sea coastal waters (Egypt): Analysis of spatial and temporal variability

In order to provide a background picture of the water quality of the Egyptian Red Sea a number of hydrological and chemical parameters have been measured bimonthly in 2000. Few data are available on this area, which is apparently subjected to an increasing human impact due to recreational (swimming and diving), industrial (mainly phosphate shipping and industry) and fishing/harbor activities. The results of the present study indicate that changes in the salinity and pH were not significant with highly oxygenated seawaters. The levels of suspended solids (as total suspended matter, TSM) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) were generally low and showed an homogeneous distribution in the study region. The ratio of chlorophyll-a to total suspended matter concentrations increased between November and March and decreased from May to September. Chlorophyll-a was significantly correlated with transparency and total suspended matter concentrations in July, September and November. Nitrogen, phosphorus and reactive silicate concentrations were generally low, and allowed classifying the Egyptian Red Sea coastal water as oligotrophic to mesotrophic. The middle region of the study area, which was located between Safaga and Qusair displayed relatively high phosphate contents when compared with other coastal areas. The high values of N:P ratios indicate that PO 4 -P is the limiting factor for phytoplankton growth in the Red Sea coastal waters, with the possible exception of the middle region. Significant relationships were found between chlorophyll-a concentrations and nutrient levels in different sampling periods. Spatial distribution patterns of the studied variables revealed that productivity of the Red Sea coastal waters is mostly controlled by phosphate concentrations, salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen.     

Predation, habitat complexity, and variation in density-dependent mortality of temperate reef fishes

Density dependence in demographic rates can strongly affect the dynamics of populations. However, the mechanisms generating density dependence (e.g., predation) are also dynamic processes and may be influenced by local conditions. Understanding the manner in which local habitat features affect the occurrence and/or strength of density dependence will increase our understanding of population dynamics in heterogeneous environments. In this study I conducted two separate field experiments to investigate how local predator density and habitat complexity affect the occurrence and form of density-dependent mortality of juvenile rockfishes (Sebastes spp.). I also used yearly censuses of rockfish populations on nearshore reefs throughout central California to evaluate mortality of juvenile rockfish at large spatial scales. Manipulations of predators (juvenile bocaccio, S. paucispinus) and prey (kelp, gopher, and black-and-yellow [KGB] rockfish, Sebastes spp.) demonstrated that increasing the density of predators altered their functional response and thus altered patterns of density dependence in mortality of their prey. At low densities of predators, the number of prey consumed per predator was a decelerating function, and mortality of prey was inversely density dependent. However, at high densities of predators, the number of prey killed per predator became an accelerating response, and prey mortality was directly density dependent. Results of field experiments and large-scale surveys both indicated that the strength of density-dependent mortality may also be affected by the structural complexity of the habitat. In small-scale field experiments, increased habitat complexity increased the strength of density-dependent mortality. However, at large scales, increasing complexity resulted in a decrease in the strength of density dependence. I suggest that these differences resulted from scale-dependent changes in the predatory response that generated mortality. Whether increased habitat complexity leads to an increase or a decrease in the strength of density-dependent mortality may depend on how specific predatory responses (e.g., functional or aggregative) are altered by habitat complexity. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that rates of demographic density dependence and the resulting dynamics of local populations may largely depend upon attributes of the local habitat.     

Trophic ecology of New Zealand triplefin fishes (Family Tripterygiidae)

In many vertebrate radiations, food partitioning among closely related taxa is a key factor in both the maintenance of species diversity and the process of diversification. We compared diet composition and jaw morphology of 18 New Zealand triplefin species (F. Tripterygiidae) to examine whether species have diversified along a trophic axis. These fishes predominantly utilised small, mobile benthic invertebrates, and interspecific differences in diet composition appeared to be mainly attributable to habitat- or size-dependent feeding behaviour. Although there were differences in the relative size of the bones comprising the oral jaw apparatus between species, the majority showed an apparatus consistent with a relatively high velocity, low force jaw movement indicative of a diet of evasive prey. Phylogenetic comparative analyses showed that the evolution of jaw lever ratios and diet breadth was best explained by a non-directional model in which character changes have occurred randomly and independent of phylogeny. The mode of diet breadth evolution was gradual and the tempo has not accelerated or slowed down over time. The mode of evolution for the jaw lever ratios has been gradual for the opening but punctuated for the closing levers, suggesting that evolutionary changes have occurred rapidly for the latter trait. The tempo of trait evolution for the jaw opening levers has not accelerated or slowed down over time, while the tempo for the jaw closing levers has accelerated towards the tips of the tree, which is suggestive of species level adaptation. The lack of phylogenetic signal in diet breadth and jaw lever ratios appears most likely to be a correlated response to the marked habitat diversification in this group, and is thus the passive outcome of prey availability in species-specific habitat types. Overall, the trophic ecology of New Zealand’s triplefin fauna parallels the generalist strategy typical of the family worldwide, suggesting that trophic resource partitioning has not been an important factor in the evolution of these fishes. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Vertical growth in a coastal city: an analysis of Boa Viagem (Recife,Brazil)

Coastal zones around the world have experienced urban growth in the last 50 years. This landscape change brings new aspects for those zones and the environment. Real estate speculation is a decisive factor that changes landscape, with urban growth that occurs both in the extent and volume of construction. Boa Viagem (BV) beach at Recife, Northeast Brazil was just a sand bar covered by an Atlantic Forest until middle of the 1800s. Today, it has turned into a busy area of the city where residences, services and commerce co-exist in a densely packed arrangement. This work demonstrates and analyses vertical growth in BV and urban changes from 1961 to 2011. It was developed using digital image processing and visual analysis of satellite imagery and aerial photos. A GIS was created using SPRING and ArcScene, to calculate variations in area and volume creating a Volumetric Index (VI). The Minimal Mapping Area was used in sixteen census tract as samples of the area. Occupation and vertical growth were especially accentuated from 1981 to 1996 with the peak at 2011. Increases in vertical growth from shore to inland are evident in all parts of the district. This finding was confirmed by three-dimensional GIS representations of the study area and the VI during the period of this work, showing the potential of 3D GIS models for studying dense urbanization areas in coastal zones.