Conservation and the Lure of the Garden

Abstract:  Among the conservation voices today who seek a sensible "middle ground" in remedying land-use problems are those who propose a tend-the-garden ethic in which humans would merely need to view the earth as a garden and labor to make it productive and beautiful in order to solve conservation challenges. This line of reasoning is exemplified by Michael Pollan's highly praised book, Second Nature , which supports conservation values but harshly criticizes contemporary environmental efforts, including the work of such organizations as The Nature Conservancy. Pollan's portrayal of the gardener as model conservationist is usefully compared with an important essay by Aldo Leopold from a half-century ago, "The Farmer as a Conservationist," which similarly uses a model land tender as exemplar of where conservation needs to head. Comparing the two writings reveals profound flaws in the contemporary tend-the-garden line of thought. In doing so, it usefully reveals to scientists why their efforts are so often misunderstood and resisted. The popularity of tend-the-garden reasoning illustrates how successful the environmental backlash has been in misportraying the motives and aims of serious conservationists, particularly those who seek to protect wildlife and natural habitat. In doing so, it highlights the need for conservationists to take their own ideas more seriously and to do a far better job of presenting those ideas, in coherent form, to broad audiences.     

水上公园水体的水供现状及营养功能状态评价

本文论述了天津市水上公园水体的水质现状,并依据有关标准对水体的营养状态,水体的游览景 产养殖,饮水备用水源等功能进行了评价。     

Offsets and Conservation of the Species of the EU Habitats and Birds Directives

Biodiversity offsets are intended to achieve no net loss of biodiversity due to economic and human development. A variety of biodiversity components are addressed by offset policies. It is required that loss of protected species due to development be offset under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives in Europe. We call this type of offset a species‐equality offset because the offset pertains to the same species affected by the development project. Whether species equality can be achieved by offset design is unknown. We addressed this gap by reviewing derogation files (i.e., specific files that describe mitigation measures to ensure no net loss under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives) from 85 development projects in France (2009–2010). We collected information on type of effect (reversible vs. irreversible) and characteristics of affected and offset sites (i.e., types of species, total area). We analyzed how the type of effect and the affected‐site characteristics influenced the occurrence of offset measures. The proportion of species targeted by offset measures (i.e., offset species) increased with the irreversibility of the effect of development and the conservation status of the species affected by development (i.e., affected species). Not all effects on endangered species (International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List) were offset; on average, 82% of affected species would be offset. Twenty‐six percent of species of least concern were offset species. Thirty‐five percent of development projects considered all affected species in their offset measures. Species richness was much lower in offset sites than in developed sites even after offset proposals. For developed areas where species richness was relatively high before development, species richness at offset sites was 5–10 times lower. The species‐equality principle appears to have been applied only partially in offset policies, as in the EU directives. We suggest the application of this principle through offsets is highly important for the long‐term conservation of biodiversity in Europe. Compensaciones y Conservación de las Especies de las Directivas de Hábitats y Aves de la UE     

Mining of the forest and the time path of the price of timber

The paper analyzes the effect of transportation (site specific) costs and the effect of mining (depletion) of the forest on the time path of the price and of the net price of timber in two forestry models. The models differ in that one has zero costs and the other has positive costs. The analyses yield the standard mining theory results for certain cases. They also yield extentions of these results for cases with growth of the harvested trees and/or regeneration on the harvested land. The paper concludes, as one would expect, that the theory of the mine is useful in analyzing the time path of the price of timber.     

广东人口粮食动态模型的建立及土地生产力分析

对我省的人口发展和粮食生产进行了系统的分析和研究,结果表明广东人口将在2005年底达到8000万人,比过去人口的增长速度明显加快;而粮食生产却不容乐观,到2015年最多只能达到年产2670万t的水平,人均粮食约280 kg,比目前水平略低。从长远来考虑,我省的粮食问题将更显不足,而耕地又逐年减少,故提高土地利用率和生产水平是目前迫切需要解决的实际问题。     

刍议医院资产管理的现状及其对策

医院的固定资产和流动资产是医院赖以生存和发展的基础,是一项非经营性国有资产．目前公立医院固定资产、流动资产管理现状不容乐观,针对这种状况,首先分析问题形成的原因,然后提出管理的措施或建议,从而使资产管理工作规范化、制度化、科学化,使有限的卫生资源发挥出最大的社会效益和经济效益．参3．     

洞庭湖区生态环境退化状况及其原因分析

洞庭湖居湖南省东北隅,长江荆江段南岸。湖泊形状呈近似“U”字形,岳阳站水位33.50 m时(黄海基面),湖长143.00 km,最大湖宽30.00 km,平均湖宽17.01 km,湖泊面积2625 km2;最大水深23.5 m,平均水深6.39 m,蓄水量167?08 m3。因入湖泥沙长期淤积、高洲围垦、并垸合流等自然因素和人类活动的共同影响,自清代末期以来,湖泊形态演变剧烈,湖盆抬高,入湖河流三角洲快速发育,湖面南移而缩小;现湖体已明显演变为西洞庭湖、南洞庭湖和东洞庭湖首尾相接三个部分,具有“高水湖相,低水河相”的典型特征。洞庭湖区不但是我国受洪水威胁最严重的地区之一,而且生态退化和环境问题也十分突出,一直受到国家的高度重视。文章在大量调查的基础上,对洞庭湖及其湖区的生态环境退化状况、产生原因和可能带来的负面影响等方面进行了初步分析。     

Nature and composition of the cephalic and thoracic cuticles of the hermit crab Clibanarius olivaceous

The structure and composition of the cephalic and thoracic cuticles of Clibanarius olivaceous Henderson are described. The cephalic cuticle is completely hardened due to tanning of the epicuticle and the outer part of the procuticle (pigmented Layer). The thoracic cuticle is partially hardened. The differences in extent of tanning reflect the chemical composition of the respective regions. The epicuticle of the cephalic region contains a protein rich in tyrosine, which combines with a sterol to form a lipoprotein complex. This in turn forms the precursor to sclerotin. Phenolic substances appear to be oxidized to quinones by the action of phenolase. The outer part of the procuticle of the cephalic region also contains phenolic substances, but this layer remains only partially tanned. This partial hardening is due to the presence of an inhibitory substance having the nature of ascorbic acid. In the epicuticle of the thoracic region, however, an arrest in tanning appears to be due not to the presence of an inhibitory substance, but to the absence of phenolase necessary for the oxidation of tanning material. In C. olivaceous, the tanning process is much abbreviated. The primary cause of hardening is calcification. The sulphydryl groups and acid mucopolysaccharide detected in the cephalic and thoracic cuticles of C. olivaceous are involved in calcification. It is suggested that hardening of the cephalic and thoracic cuticles in C. olivaceous constitutes a protection during those periods when these parts are exposed to the environment.     

Peculiarities of the geographical and vertical distribution of marine isopods and the problem of deep-sea fauna origin

Data on isopods processed by the author and the literature available on the subject have made it possible to provide specific lists of isopods for coastal zones of cold and cold-temperate regions in both hemispheres and for isopods from depths of more than 2000 m for the entire World Ocean. A comparative analysis shows both faunas to be very similar with respect to family and genus; in this respect they differ considerably from the shallow-water fauna of warm zones. Comparative-anatomic data indicate that the suborder Flabellifera is the most primitive, the Asellota the most specialized group; the data permit the singling out of the more primitive as well as the more specialized families in each suborder under study. Analysis of vertical distributions of all isopods in the World Ocean suggests that primitive isopods are principally confined to tropical shelves; however, in the shelves of cold and cold-temperate waters, especially in deep seas, a considerable number of phylogenetically recent families is present. Thus, the tropical shallow-water fauna proves to be the most ancient, while the shallow fauna of cold and temperate waters may be regarded as geologically more recent. The deep-sea fauna is considered to be the youngest. The author hypothesizes the probable ascendance of the deep-sea fauna from the Antarctic fauna in the period of increasing cold, as early as the late Cretaceous period. This process was promoted by glaciation in the Antarctic Ocean, and its gradual isostatic dipping together with the shelf.     

Uncertain sightings and the extinction of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker

The extinction of a species can be inferred from a record of its sightings. Existing methods for doing so assume that all sightings in the record are valid. Often, however, there are sightings of uncertain validity. To date, uncertain sightings have been treated in an ad hoc way, either excluding them from the record or including them as if they were certain. We developed a Bayesian method that formally accounts for such uncertain sightings. The method assumes that valid and invalid sightings follow independent Poisson processes and use noninformative prior distributions for the rate of valid sightings and for a measure of the quality of uncertain sightings. We applied the method to a recently published record of sightings of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis). This record covers the period 1897-2010 and contains 39 sightings classified as certain and 29 classified as uncertain. The Bayes factor in favor of extinction was 4.03, which constitutes substantial support for extinction. The posterior distribution of the time of extinction has 3 main modes in 1944, 1952, and 1988. The method can be applied to sighting records of other purportedly extinct species.     

On the feeding and behaviour of the larva of Branchiostoma lanceolatum

Collections of Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas) made in mid-May and mid-July at Helgoland before and after spawning have established that the larvae leave the amphioxus ground about June and therefore presumably become planktonic. Metamorphosing larvae and young adults can be collected on the ground in late August and early September and are either the same larvae returning, or others from a neighbouring ground within the same circulating current system. An examination of the gut contents of 67 larvae collected from the plankton at Helgoland in August showed that 30% of the animals had ingested calanoid copepods or other organic material of a size similar to that of the larval mouth. A few larvae had also taken small particles evidently by a ciliary mechanism. In 50% of the larvae the gut was empty. It has been found that, in addition to a muscular mouth and gill bars richly supplied with nerves, both the gut wall and the body wall are muscular and capable of passing, by peristalsis, large food masses that distend the body. The visceral muscles of the larva resemble the coelomyarian fibres of the Nematoda. The larva appears, therefore, to be both microphagous and macrophagous. Evidence from the swimming behaviour and from reports of the vertical distribution of larvae in the sea is discussed. It is suggested that the larvae normally swim upward with the mouth and gills closed and then sink passively in the horizontal position with the pharynx expanded and the open mouth directed downward. In the event of large organism such as a copepod or a mass of organic material coming into contact with the adhesive lower left surface of the larva, it could be captured by the mobile lower lip and engulfed. The straightening of the larval tail, the great increase in the number of eyecups and the growth of the metapleura at metamorphosis are suggested as factors leading to the settlement of the young adult. Attention is drawn to the possible significance of the structure of the larva in interpreting the relationships of the cephalochordates.     

Molecular Taxonomy and the Conservation of the Red Wolf and Other Endangered Carnivores

Recent publications have reaffirmed that the red wolf ( Canis rufus ) is a hybrid of the coyote and the gray wolf. Besides the implications these results will likely have for future conservation efforts and allotment of resources through the Endangered Species Act for recovery of the red wolf, it is likely that broader consequences will be felt throughout the conservation community as species come under the scrutiny of a more powerful means of taxonomic identification. As molecular technology is refined in its ability to resolve taxonomic histories and uncertainties, it is likely that hybridization event(s) will be recognized in more species. This may be of particular importance for large carnivores, whose small population sizes make them susceptible to hybridization episodes with closely related, sympatric species. Because of negative perceptions, powerful antipredator advocates, conservation and resource constraints, and an enigmatic hybrid policy within the Endangered Species Act, how red-wolf taxonomy is decided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service may affect the future of large carnivores in general.     

Influence of the biological and physical environment on the vertical distribution of mesozooplankton and micronekton in the eastern tropical Pacific

The day/night vertical distributions of mesozooplankton and micronekton biomass and that of a large number of copepod species to a depth of 1 000 m are described and contrasted in detail from two eastern tropical Pacific stations, the DOME station, in a region of continuous upwelling and the BIOSTAT station, in a non-upwelling area. The effects of various biological parameters such as the zones of primary production and chlorophyll maxima plus physical parameters, such as temperature, salinity and oxygen concentrations, on the distributions of the species and mesozooplankton and micronekton biomass are examined. The thermocline depth appeared to have the greatest influence of all the physical factors on the vertical distribution of the copepod species. The vertical distribution of many species was truncated in the region of the oxygen minimum layer with very few species found below this layer. The vertical distribution of copepod molts in the top 1 000 m showed that the molts probably originated at the depths at which they were found and that the molts from the euphotic zone did not reach the deep water. Copepod species association at different depths showed that few species had common depth distributions during both day and night. The highest degree of association occurred at night in the region of the thermocline. At depths below the thermocline, the degree of similarity in vertical distributions was greatly reduced. The biomass of mesozooplankton at these two stations is compared to other regions of the tropical oceans described in the literature and shown to be among the highest values recorded. The oxygen minimum layer and the thermocline had the greatest impact on species vertical distribution. The biomass of mesoplankton was about twice as high and the number of copepods between three and four times as high at the DOME site as compared to the BIOSTAT site, and evidence suggested that this was influenced by the higher primary production in this region. The difference in micronekton biomass between sites was less, with DOME having about 1.2 to 2.2 the biomass. This suggests that the influence of the higher level of primary productivity at the DOME was evidence of the higher trophic levels.     

Sugar concentration and the structure of the sunbird's song

Summary The full song of the yellow-bellied sunbird (Nectarinia venusta) comprises distinct phrases, which retain their typical three-part structure and temporal organization regardless of the concentration of the sucrose solution provided. However, the sugar concentration does affect the types of elements that make up the initial part of the phrase and the number of elements in the terminal part. Several types of elements may be produced either as separate calls or as components of the initial part of the phrase; as the concentration decreases, at least two of these element types occur progressively more often in the phrases, taking the place of others.     

1,2,4-三氯苯对蚯蚓生长和表皮及肠道超微结构的影响

通过自然土壤法对蚯蚓进行1,2,4-TCB急性暴露实验,研究了不同剂量的1,2,4-TCB对蚯蚓存亡、生长和表皮及肠道粘膜上皮细胞超微结构的影响。结果表明:1,2,4-TCB对蚯蚓14d半致死浓度为890.295mg·L-1;暴露剂量和培养时间均对蚯蚓生长抑制率产生正相关显著影响,但交互作用不显著;暴露于50mg·kg-11,2,4-TCB时,蚯蚓表皮分泌细胞增多,角质层增厚或上角质层损伤,肠道粘膜上皮细胞凹陷形成一定的溃疡面或呈撕裂分散状,第14天时,上角质层和肠道粘膜上皮细胞损伤均有所恢复;当暴露浓度为400mg·kg-1时,蚯蚓的角质层明显增厚,表皮出现大量的分泌细胞,肠上皮组织呈一定程度的撕裂并少量脱落,第14天时角质层变薄,分泌细胞减少,上角质层破损加剧,肠上皮细胞撕裂严重并持续脱落。第14天电镜观察显示:暴露浓度为50mg·kg-1时,肠上皮细胞线粒体嵴不清晰或断裂,结构模糊;暴露浓度为400mg·L-1时,部分线粒体空泡化或内部有絮状沉淀,嵴变短甚至消失。     

Effects of anoxia on the activities of pyruvate kinase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase,and the production of lactate and succinate in the intertidal pulmonate Onchidium tumidium

Onchidium tumidium, an intertidal pulmonate, has evolved to depend mainly on the formation of succinate, rather than lactate and opines, to survive in anoxia. For our study O. tumidum were collected from the mud flats of the mangrove swamp at Mandai, Singapore between 1988 and 1991. After 24 h of anoxic exposure, the lactate and succinate contents of the anoxic individuals were approximately 10 and 150 times, respectively, the corresponding values of the normoxic individuals. Alanine and acetate accumulations also occurred during anoxia, though to a much lesser extent. No propionate or octopine was detected. The depletion in aspartate content in O. tumidium could not account for the amount of succinate accumulated during anoxia. The succinate formed might have originated from glycogen involving the flow of carbon through the phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) branch point of glycolysis. In support of such a hypothesis, results indicate that there was a decrease in the affinity of pyruvate kinase from O. tumidium exposed to 24h of anoxia to PEP to facilitate succinate formation through phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK). In comparison, the affinity of PEPCK from O. tumidium exposed to anoxia to PEP was apparently unaltered.     

Chaetognaths and ctenophores in the holoplankton of the Bristol Channel

The geographical distributions, seasonal variations in numerical abundance and biomass (mg C m^-3) of the predators of the holoplankton of the Bristol Channel, between November 1973 and February 1975, are described. The predator numbers and biomass were dominated by the chaetognath Sagitta elegans Verrill. This species represented 96% of the holoplankton carnivore biomass in the outer, seaward region of the Channel and 60% in the inner region; the remainder being ctenophores. The maximum numerical abundance of S. elegans occurred in September at 129 individuals m^-3 (18 mg C m^-3). Juveniles (<5 mm) reached maximum numbers of 55 individuals m^-3 during June, August and September, demonstrating the reproductive activity of the population. The peak numbers were probably the result of the development of two major generations over the 90 d period from mid-June to mid-September. The tentaculate ctenophores were represented by Pleurobrachia pileus (O. F. Müller). The highest abundance was 81 individuals m^-3 (3.0 mg C m^-3) at a single site in July in the South Central Channel. However, June was the only month when the ctenophores dominated the carnivore biomass in all regions of the Channel; thereafter, S. elegans was more abundant. Reproduction of the ctenophore occurred from April to September, with juveniles reaching maximum abundance in June at 12 individuals m^-3. The estimated food demand of the population in May for the outer region of the Channel was approximately 31% of the daily production of copepods. When the population reached its peak abundance in June, the estimated food requirement outstripped the daily production of copepods and a decline in both the prey and predator standing stocks was observed. Similar estimations were derived for the inner region of the Channel. S. elegans increased from a standing stock of 0.038 mg C m^-3 in March to 6.35 mg C m^-3 in September. Estimates of the copepod production compared with the derived demand of the chaetognath population showed that the decline in the copepods in the late summer was the result of feeding by this predator. The holoplankton carnivore population was approximately 66% of the copepod standing stock for the 10 mo period November 1973 to September 1974 in the outer region of the Channel and 45% of that in the inner region. The carnivores formed the greater part of the total holoplankton biomass from September through the winter months to February, suggesting a predator-dominated community.     

Subcellular distribution of zinc and cadmium in the hepatopancreas and gills of the decapod crustacean Penaeus indicus

The decapod crustacean Penaeus indicus accumulated Cd and Zn in different subcellular compartments of hepatopancreas and gill cells. Most of the Cd and part of the Zn accumulates within the soluble fraction of the cells, while the remainder of the Zn is found in insoluble inclusions, associated with P, Ca, Mg and Si in B-, F- and R-cells in the hepatopancreas, and haemocytes, nephrocytes and epithelial cells in the gills. No presence of Cd was observed in metal-rich inclusions in any cell analysed. Metallothionein-like proteins (MTLP), analysed by differential pulse polarography, were present in the hepatopancreas (12–18 mg g⁻¹) and gills (7–8 mg g⁻¹) of metal-exposed prawns. Binding to MTLP is the detoxification mechanism for cadmium, while the detoxification of zinc involves both binding to MTLP and incorporation into insoluble metal-rich inclusions.     

Free amino acid patterns and the classification of the Demospongiae

An investigation of the free amino acid patterns of 67 species representing 50 genera of West Indian Demospongiae has been undertaken to examine the value of this biochemical approach in adding another parameter to phylogenetic inquiries. Two-dimensional thin-layer electrophoresis and chromatography were used to separate mixtures of naturally occurring ninhydrin-positive compounds. Individual components were identified as far as possible, and the fingerprints or patterns of the species studied were used as a basis for evaluating relationships. The subclass Ceractinomorpha is a relatively homogeneous group, with free amino acid patterns characterized by a consistent representation of protein amino acids and by the absence of compounds other than taurine and hypotaurine in the neutral region of the chromatogram. Two variants of this general pattern can be recognized, one found in the orders Dictyoceratida and Poecilosclerida, the other occurring in the order Haplosclerida and the family Halichondriidae of the order Halichondrida. Unexpected results within this subclass are the wide separation of the dictyoceratid families Spongiidae and Verongiidae, the anomolous patterns of the genera Agelas and Iotrochota and of the family Callyspongiidae, and the suggestive affinities of the family Hymeniacidonidae with the order Hadromerida. The subclass Tetractinomorpha appears to represent a polyphyletic assemblage in which 5 recognizable patterns can be distinguished. These represent the orders Homosclerophorida, Choristida, Spirophorida, Hadromerida and Axinellida. Of interest are the suggestions that the order Choristida is in itself a heterogeneous group, and that certain genera now placed in the order Axinellida may in fact be more closely related to the Poecilosclerida.     

有机氮比例和光强对赤潮藻球形棕囊藻生长和光合作用的影响

采用实验室一次性培养的方法,研究了有机氮比率和光照强度相互作用对赤潮藻球形棕囊藻（Phaeocystis globosa）生长和光合作用的影响。结果表明,在高光条件下（120μmol.m-2.s-1）,有机氮含量为20%时,其细胞密度、比生长率均显著高于对照组和其他处理组,球形棕囊藻生长最好;在低光条件下（10μmol.m-2.s-1）,有机氮含量大于50%时,其细胞密度要高于硝态氮和有机氮为20%的实验组。无论是高光还是低光条件下,有机氮含量变化对球形棕囊藻Fv/Fm影响不大。但在高光条件下,不同氮源对其Fv/Fm有显著的影响,硝氮组显著高于尿素组而在低光照条件下,以尿素为唯一氮源的对照组达到最大光能转化效率0.752,但与硝氮组差别不显著。对于既能利用无机氮又能利用有机氮的海洋微藻来说,有机氮的存在可能显著促进其增殖,从而改变浮游植物群落结构,并可能在适宜的环境条件下形成赤潮。