Scientific certainty and the laws that govern location of a potential high-level nuclear waste repository

Recent studies have questioned the ability of the Department of Energy to successfully construct and operate a high-level nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA, consistent with current Environmental Protection Agency standards and Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations. Questions focus on whether demonstration of compliance with the agency's standards is based too much on numerical calculations and analyses that the Department of Energy must conduct to project the long-term performance of the repository. Unless these questions are resolved, the licensing of the repository could be withheld or delayed by litigation. This article reviews the extent to which laws that govern the siting of high-level nuclear waste repositories require scientific certainty in any findings about the environmental consequences of locating a repository.     

Implications of environmental program planning for siting a nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain,Nevada, USA

The US Department of Energy (DOE) plans to conduct site characterization studies at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, to determine if the location is a suitable site for a nuclear waste repository. In lieu of traditional environmental review in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, the DOE is relying on an environmental assessment (EA) mandated by the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 as the cornerstone of its environmental program for the Yucca Mountain Project. Because of statutory restrictions, the EA is not based on comprehensive baseline information. Neither does it address fundamentals of environmental analysis such as ecological integrity and assessment of cumulative impacts. Consequently, the present environmental program for Yucca Mountain reflects decisions made without complete information and integrated environmental review. The shortcomings of the program risk compromising the natural integrity of Yucca Mountain and invalidating future assessment of the ability of a nuclear waste repository located at the site to protect the environment. Significant improvements are needed in the repository siting program before it can serve as a model of how society can evaluate the long-term environmental consequences of advanced technologies, as has been suggested.     

Equity and nuclear waste disposal

Following the recommendations of the US National Academy of Sciences and the mandates of the 1987 Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act, the US Department of Energy has proposed Yucca Mountain, Nevada as the site of the world's first permanent repository for high-level nuclear waste. The main justification for permanent disposal (as opposed to above-ground storage) is that it guarantees safety by means of waste isolation. This essay argues, however, that considerations of equity (safer for whom?) undercut the safety rationale. The article surveys some prima facie arguments for equity in the distribution of radwaste risks and then evaluates four objections that are based, respectively, on practicality, compensation for risks, scepticism about duties to future generations, and the uranium criterion. The conclusion is that, at least under existing regulations and policies, permanent waste disposal is highly questionable, in part, because it fails to distribute risk equitably or to compensate, in full, for this inequity.     

The role of science in the decision to site a high-level nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain,Nevada, USA

Summary Actions during most of this decade concerning where and how to locate a repository for high-level commercial and defence nuclear wastes have been guided by the National Environmental Policy Act and the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982. Issues of repository siting have been controversial, and in December 1987 Congress passed the Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act, which identified Yucca Mountain, Nevada, as the nation's first and only site to be characterized for a potential repository. This decision has generated understudied questions regarding the role of science and ethics derived from the mandates of the legislation and use of environmental impact methodology which is predicated upon a positivistic model of science. Because of the importance of choosing an acceptable repository site to protect humans and natural resources for thousands of years into the future, the broadest spectrum of views and in-depth critiques of the role of science in the repository program is required in order that understudied questions can be resolved.John Lemons is the Chairperson of the Department of Life Sciences at the University of New England and, the Editor-in-Chief of the journalThe Environmental Professional. He has authored numerous articles on nuclear waste management, pollution, and wilderness management.Donald Brown is the Director of the Bureau of Hazardous Sites and Superfund Enforcement for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 221 North Second Street, 3rd Floor, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17101. He has published numerous papers on the interface between philosophy and science as it relates to public policy making on environmental issues.     

乡村旅游生态足迹结构与特征研究——以北京市延庆县柳沟村为例

通过对北京市郊县柳沟村的实证研究,得到乡村旅游生态足迹的特点和构成.研究发现,各类生态系统服务多功能性节约了部分生态足迹,该村60万游客2011年生态足迹为2266.724chm2,平均0.003778chm2/人,是一种生态足迹较小的旅游方式;占用土地类型比例依次是化石能源地45.37％、可耕地44.79％、水域9.69％、建成地0.15％.从旅游环节来看,食宿、交通、游购娱、废弃物处理比例分别为46.06％、27.25％、22.54％、4.15％.由于本地不具备生产条件或生产优势,食物贸易转移了部分生态足迹,目的地发展旅游业可提高生态效率和社会效益.     

青年旅游者乡村旅游消费行为实证分析——以成都市为例

国内不少文献对乡村旅游消费者行为做了实证研究,但专门针对某一年龄群体的研究却不多。事实上,不同年龄的旅游消费者的心理特征有很大的差别,表现出不同的旅游消费行为。以成都城郊乡村旅游地为例,采用问卷调查和现场访谈结合的方法,从出游意愿、时空行为、出游方式、消费行为和旅游偏好等方面对18—30岁的青年旅游者消费行为做了详细分析,试图发现青年旅游者的消费行为规律,提出开发青年旅游者乡村旅游市场的建议。     

我国乡村旅游文献研究的特点与评价

我国乡村旅游发展历史较短，相关的研究文献集中出现在20世纪90年代末期及以后，乡村旅游研究文献的深度和广度一定程度上凸显了我国乡村旅游发展和研究现状。选取具有代表性的89篇乡村旅游文献，在全面分析文献内容的基础上，从不同的角度进行数理统计分析，得出国内乡村旅游文献研究的一些特点，同时做出相应的评价和展望。     

Use of strategic environmental assessment in the site selection process for a radioactive waste disposal facility in Slovenia

The benefits of strategic environmental considerations in the process of siting a repository for low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste (LILW) are presented. The benefits have been explored by analyzing differences between the two site selection processes. One is a so-called official site selection process, which is implemented by the Agency for radwaste management (ARAO); the other is an optimization process suggested by experts working in the area of environmental impact assessment (EIA) and land-use (spatial) planning. The criteria on which the comparison of the results of the two site selection processes has been based are spatial organization, environmental impact, safety in terms of potential exposure of the population to radioactivity released from the repository, and feasibility of the repository from the technical, financial/economic and social point of view (the latter relates to consent by the local community for siting the repository). The site selection processes have been compared with the support of the decision expert system named DEX. The results of the comparison indicate that the sites selected by ARAO meet fewer suitability criteria than those identified by applying strategic environmental considerations in the framework of the optimization process. This result stands when taking into account spatial, environmental, safety and technical feasibility points of view. Acceptability of a site by a local community could not have been tested, since the formal site selection process has not yet been concluded; this remains as an uncertain and open point of the comparison.     

东江源沿江村镇生活垃圾物理特性分析

东江系广东及香港的饮用水源地,其源区包括江西省赣州市的寻乌、安远和定南3县。本研究在东江源区选取了3个典型村庄,调查农村生活垃圾的产生量及物理特性。调查发现：东江源区农村生活垃圾主要以厨余类垃圾为主,可达60％以上;其次是灰土类垃圾,可达12％以上,其他组分一般在10％以下。县级村人均垃圾产生量一般在0.2~0.47 kg·d^-1,平均0.36 kg·d^-1;镇级村人均垃圾产生量在0.18~0.35 kg·d^-1,平均0.29 kg·d^-1;普通村人均垃圾产生量在0.07~0.33 kg·d^-1,平均0.17 kg·d^-1。混合生活垃圾含水率与厨余类垃圾所占的比例呈显著线性相关（R^2=0.626,P=0.019）。混合垃圾平均热值在2329 kJ·kg-1,不适合直接进行焚烧处理。     

乡村旅游发展的起源及研究综述

乡村旅游已日益成为我国旅游产业发展中的特色和重要支柱。通过对乡村旅游的起源、研究综述、定义的比较研究，更全面地认识和理解乡村旅游的定义，并以此在乡村旅游的发展方向和研究方向上给出一个新的视角和思路来审视乡村旅游在实践过程中的问题。     

Environmental changes associated with mass urban tourism and nature tourism development in Hong Kong

Hong Kong's tourism is overwhelmingly urban-focused. There is a heavy concentration of tourist and ancillary facilities in a small core urban area. A well-defined tourist business district has evolved with imprints on urban morphology. Hotels and the travel industry have limited direct environmental impacts; recent efforts have reduced energy and water consumption and waste generation. Changing preferences and market diversification call for countryside and resort types of tourism. The mainly young visitors are increasingly interested in the scenic countryside with a well-established country-park system, the tourist potential of which has been neglected. Hitherto rural excursions have been confined to 'honeypots' with little penetration away from main roads. The varied possibilities of nature tourism with ecotourism ingredients can be tapped as an adjunct to the city-based counterpart. New tourist nodes such as scattered resorts and a resort island can bring visitors close to nature. The changing patterns of consumption and the increase in rural visitorship demand measures to forestall environmental degradation.     

Review of studies on environmental impacts of recreation and tourism in Australia

The paper provides a review of available information on the impact of recreation and tourism on environments, particularly on vegetation and soil, in Australia, with an emphasis on forests. Efforts have been made to compare the current research and development situation in Australia with some overseas countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom. While many documents reveal that Australia has been experiencing an increasingly high level of recreation and tourism use in its environments, only limited studies of environmental impacts of recreation and tourism have been published. Compared with other developed countries, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, Australia lags behind in undertaking research in this area. The results of these limited studies and some observations indicate that the most common recreational and tourist activities (such as bush walking, camping, horse-riding) can, if not well managed, adversely affect the values of Australian natural and semi-natural resources. Overall, they can affect the vegetation and other recreational sites physically and biologically. Physical effects include track formation, soil loss and/or compaction and an increase in fire frequency. Littering and water pollution are also seen as impacts associated with bush walking and camping. Biological effects include causing damage to vegetation, increasing risk of myrtle wilt disease and the spread of the soil pathogen,Phytophthora cinnamomi, as well as assisting weed dispersal. Based on the information reviewed, the authors suggest the following areas as priorities for future research into the environmental impact of recreation and tourism in Australia: determine the type of natural features that attract recreation use; determine the quantitative relationship between the impact and the level of recreation and tourism use for different activities within major vegetation habitats; ascertain site carrying capacity or environment thresholds for major vegetation habitats and recreation activities; and determine the impacts of recreation and tourism for major regions and major vegetation habitats where there have been considerable nature-based recreation and tourism activities.1998 Academic Press     

Siting America's geologic repository for high-level Nuclear Waste: Implications for environmental Policy

Siting a geologic repository for isolating highlevel nuclear waste up to 10,000 years is a controversial undertaking never before attempted in the United States. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 exempted repository siting from important requirements for environmental review under the National Environmental Policy Act. In December 1987, the Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act identified Yucca Mountain as the first site to be characterized for a high-level nuclear waste repository. In light of the unproven nature of the technology being evaluated, the scientific uncertainties associated with Yucca Mountain, and the lack of proven methods for risk evaluation, the environmental policies for repository siting represent a significant departure from more traditional, comprehensive, and interdisciplinary environmental review for siting nuclear projects. The policies warrant further study by those interested in how present as well as future decisions about complex technologies may be made.     

English county councils and their agenda for waste minimisation

Minimisation is the top priority of the waste management hierarchy, which is one of the guiding principals for national solid waste management planning throughout the developed world. As such it should be encouraged as a means for reducing wastes which require treatment and disposal, whether they be household, commercial or industrial in source. This paper suggests that minimisation is not being given the necessary policy frameworks or legislation within which to develop in the UK, and questions whether minimisation is being afforded the respect and attention, from all levels, that is due the most preferable waste option according to the hierarchy. This theme is investigated by surveying the county councils of England as a representative sample of waste disposal authorities in England, and former waste regulation authorities. They are responsible for guiding local and district waste policy and are the regional waste planners in the UK. If they are not seriously taking on board the message of minimisation, then there is little chance that it will succeed without further legislative developments. Some 59% of English counties have a minimisation policy, whilst only 47% have participated in and supported a minimisation programme or trial within their region. The majority of these developments have occurred within the last three years, and 78% of counties who have participated in a programme have found it a successful venture. By 1999 79% of English counties will have been actively involved in a minimisation programme in their region, which is a positive scenario. This trend must continue if waste minimisation is to become the key theme of future sustainable waste management in the UK as was intended by declarations at the Rio '92 conference and in subsequent UK Government policy and strategy.     

非大城市周边地区乡村旅游发展模式研究——以黄山市为例

摘要：近年来黄山市乡村旅游发展迅速,已逐渐成为非大城市周边地区乡村旅游发展的典型代表。以黄山市为例,旨在探讨其在乡村旅游发展过程中探索出的成功模式,在一定程度上丰富和完善我国乡村旅游发展模式的研究,同时也为类似区域的乡村旅游发展提供有益借鉴。     

乡村旅游产品提质升级策略探析

近年来,我国乡村旅游市场发展迅猛,涌现出大批乡村旅游接待点。但由于专业经营管理和市场理念不成熟,我国乡村旅游市场在产品品质、服务质量、经营管理等方面存在诸多问题,需要从乡村旅游产品系统出发,以文化提升、整合提升、体验提升和服务提升策略进行乡村旅游产品提质升级,保障乡村旅游市场的健康发展。     

武陵山片区旅游经济时空差异与影响因素研究

以武陵山片区县域为研究尺度,基于标准差、变异系数和旅游经济发展水平梯度探析了旅游经济发展水平的差异特征与演变规律,并借助GWR模型对旅游经济空间分异的影响因素进行了分析。结果表明:(1)武陵山片区71个县域旅游经济发展水平在时间上呈绝对差异逐年上升,而相对差异波动下降的演变趋势。(2)2014—2018年间旅游经济发展水平欠发达区数量下降,并呈西北和东北部明显高于其他区域的空间分布格局。(3)人均GDP、第三产业占GDP比重、3A级以上景点数、国家级非物质文化遗产数、公路密度、3星级以上宾馆数是影响武陵山片区旅游经济发展水平的主要因素。     

国内外近地表处置场处置技术研究

近年来低、中水平放射性废物由于其数量大,种类多等特点得到了国际上越来越多的关注。近地表处置是这类放射性废物的主要处置技术。本文介绍了国外几个国家的近地表处置场运行情况以及管理经验。陈述了我国西北和北龙两个处置场设计及运行情况,对国内外低中放处置场的处置技术进行比较,借鉴国外近地表处置场的先进经验,提出我国近地表处置场建设的相关建议,为我国新建近地表处置场建设提供参考。     

Impacts of recreation and tourism on plant biodiversity and vegetation in protected areas in Australia

This paper reviews recent research into the impact of recreation and tourism in protected areas on plant biodiversity and vegetation communities in Australia. Despite the international significance of the Australian flora and increasing visitation to protected areas there has been limited research on recreational and tourism impacts in Australia. As overseas, there are obvious direct impacts of recreation and tourism such as clearing of vegetation for infrastructure or damage from trampling, horse riding, mountain biking and off road vehicles. As well, there are less obvious but potentially more severe indirect impacts. This includes self-propagating impacts associated with the spread of some weeds from trails and roads. It also includes the severe impact on native vegetation, including many rare and threatened plants, from spread of the root rot fungus Phytopthora cinnamomi. This review highlights the need for more recreational ecology research in Australia.     

A comparison of waste-reduction practices and new environmental paradigm of rural and urban Chinese citizens

This paper compares the public attitudes of three southern Chinese cities/towns, namely Guangzhou, Dongguan, and Yuanzhou on waste recycling and avoidance, and the New Environmental Paradigm (NEP). The latter describes the concept of treating the resources and the ecosystems on Earth as things having their own rights rather than being subordinate and subservient to humans. These three places are chosen to represent areas in different stages of urbanization in the Guangdong province. As Hong Kong is also a southern Chinese city, where data of similar nature are available, comparison with Hong Kong is also made. It was found that the support for source separation of household waste in the rural and urban areas in mainland China was greater than that found in Hong Kong. Concerning actual practices on waste separation, about 85% of the respondents in the cities and almost all of the rural household surveyed have the habit of saving up and selling the recyclables. It is estimated that about 11-13% of the household waste was diverted in such a way. This is higher than the estimated 8% household waste recovery rate of Hong Kong. The majority of the respondents in the three surveyed cities have recovered household recyclables in the past but with higher family incomes, it was now less common. On the contrary, the lower income group tended to recover greater portion of their waste for selling to the waste depots. These findings have implications on the future waste management policy formulation in China. Regarding the acceptance of the New Environmental Paradigm, it was found that the rural population scored better than the urban population and they tended to agree more frequently with the NEP. However, the rural population perceives a greater potential for industrial and urban development without dampening environmental quality. It was also found that the NEP scores of the mainland Chinese are higher, in general, than their Hong Kong counterparts as measured in early 1990s. Insufficient public support has often been a concern for source separation programmes in all countries despite the obvious waste management benefits of recycling. This study shows that there is overwhelming support for source separation of waste in Mainland China, whether it is in rural or urban communities, and that most people are already undertaking source separation due to the redemption value of the recyclables. Therefore, for policy-makers, the concern should not be on whether the public knows how to separate the waste but rather on how to motivate them to separate waste for the good of society, and how to maintain an effective market for recyclables.