Analysing water governance in heterogeneous case studies—Experiences with a database approach

Many resource management problems arise from failures of governance. A better understanding of governance regimes is therefore essential for a sustainable management of natural resources. This paper presents an approach that aims to gain insights into water governance regimes by combining a shared language for comparative analyses of case studies from different social and environmental contexts with relational databases. The shared language utilised is the “Management and Transition Framework” (MTF), a conceptual framework that allows comprehensive analyses of water management. The MTF was turned into an operational tool through the usage of a relational database, which facilitates the storage of large amounts of data and provides the possibility for structured analyses. Explorative analyses were performed for two case studies in order to exemplify the potential of the approach for the examination of vertical integration in flood management.So far experiences let us conclude that the presented approach increases the comparability of heterogeneous case studies and facilitates systematic analyses. This is a prerequisite for the derivation of general insights into the effects of different types of governance regimes on the performance of water management. More cases need to be recorded in the future to ensure a sound statistical base for robust analyses.     

Analyzing complex water governance regimes: the Management and Transition Framework

This paper presents the Management and Transition Framework (MTF), an interdisciplinary conceptual and methodological framework supporting the analysis of water systems, management processes and multi-level governance regimes. It serves to improve the scientific understanding of system properties and to give practical guidance for the implementation of transition processes towards more adaptive systems. Doing so requires a systemic perspective to embrace complexity and the wealth of interactions characterizing resource governance regimes. The MTF supports and provides guidance for an interdisciplinary approach in the social sciences and across the social–natural science interface.The framework integrates a range of concepts to develop a more coherent understanding of the complexity of water management regimes. Specific emphasis is given to adaptive capacity and learning processes. However, the MTF is not linked to one specific theory but provides a language that can be tailored to specific research questions and different theoretical approaches. The structured yet flexible approach is a condition for developing shared databases that allow comparative analyses over a wider range of case studies. The MTF does not promote panaceas but a diagnostic approach supporting context sensitive analysis without being case specific and thus not directly transferable.     

Ecosystem services for water policy: Insights across Europe

In this research we explored how the concepts and approaches of ecosystem services are currently used in water management in Europe, in the application of River Basin Management Plans (RBMP) developed for the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD). Five case studies have been considered, located in the River Basin Districts of the Po river (Italy), Scotland (United Kingdom), Scheldt river (Belgium), Danube river (Romania), Sado and Mira rivers and Ribeiras do Algarve (Portugal). These cases represent different regional contexts of application of this EU water policy, with specific socio-economic drivers and environmental issues. Each case study has developed an operational framework to analyse ecosystem services in practice together with a group of local stakeholders. In each regional case, we examined how EU water policy and RBMPs are implemented, considered legal and planning instruments from the national to the local scale, and we analysed the use of ecosystem service terms and concepts in the relevant planning instruments. In parallel, we explored the view of local stakeholders and water managers on the topic, collecting their opinion on three major aspects: the usefulness of the concepts and approaches of ecosystem services for WFD river basin management plans, the risks and benefits of their use, and the knowledge needs to put the concepts into practice. The major drawback of the ecosystem service approach seems to be the challenge for practitioners of understanding new concepts and methodologies, while the major advantages are that it highlights all the hidden benefits of a water body in good health and promotes multi-functionality and sustainability in water management. The results of this study provide a picture across Europe of the current use of the concepts of ecosystem services in the RBMP and relevant insight on the opinion of local stakeholders and water managers.     

长江流域生态系统可持续管理策略

长江流域涉及长江经济带发展和长三角一体化发展两大国家区域协调发展战略,但生态环境问题仍然是长江流域可持续发展面临的严峻挑战,加强长江流域生态系统可持续管理策略研究具有重大意义.长江流域的环境管理策略大致经历了以水量管理、污染物排放总量管理和水质目标管理三个阶段.在统一生态环境监管职能、实现五个“打通”的新形势下,长江流域生态环境管理策略必将由水质目标管理快速向生态系统可持续管理转变.在分析长江流域生态系统保护修复取得的积极进展和面临的严峻形势的基础上,提出了长江流域生态系统可持续管理策略:①规划和建设服务于应急预警和管理决策的长江生态系统观测网络,推动不同层级、不同职能部门、空天地一体化的多源数据融合,提高生态环境监测网络的数据时空精度和反应速度,开展水陆统筹、“山水林田湖草”生命共同体综合观测;②加强长江生态系统结构、过程、功能和服务的综合性、整体性研究,主要开展长江流域生态系统综合研究、重点区域生态系统研究和突出生态问题专题研究,不断创新科研与管理深度融合的科研模式,把论文写在祖国大地上;③制定长江社会-经济-自然复合生态系统保护修复可持续发展目标及分阶段分区域目标,促进水资源、水环境、水生态、陆域生态和水陆交错带的持续改善以及生态环境系统与社会经济系统的持续协同;④提出长江生态系统保护修复的整体性、综合性和针对性、差异化的解决方案,推动长江流域生态系统健康可持续发展目标的早日实现和重点区域、突出问题的尽快解决.      

Ecosystem services in global sustainability policies

Global sustainability policies, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or the Aichi Targets, aim to ensure sustainable development, including improved human well-being and the conservation of nature. Although not yet explicitly used to evaluate the progress towards sustainable development, the ecosystem service concept implies a direct link between biodiversity and human well-being. This study explores how and which ecosystem services are currently considered in the SDGs and the Aichi Targets. We also identify which information might be already available for monitoring the progress towards their goals by reviewing national ecosystem assessments. This allows the identification of the main knowledge gaps for monitoring progress towards these global sustainability targets.There is a wealth of information on all major ecosystem services categories which is directly relevant for the Aichi Targets and the SDGs. The top 25% most cited ecosystem services across both policy documents are: Natural heritage and diversity, Capture fisheries, Aquaculture, Water purification, Crops, Cultural heritage & diversity and Livestock. Most monitoring information recommended for the global sustainability goals, as well as in the information available from national assessments, is biased towards supply related aspects of ecosystem services flows. In contrast, there is much less information on social behaviour, use, demand and governance measures. Indicators are rarely available for all aspects of a specific ecosystem service.The national statistical bureaus currently in charge of providing observations for reporting on SDGs, could be well placed to address this bias, by integrating ecological observations with socio-economic statistics into socio-ecological indicators for ecosystem services flows. IPBES can potentially address the gaps identified in this paper by improving coverage of the different dimensions of ecosystem services flows.     

基于韧性理念的海岸带生态修复规划方法及应用

生态修复是海岸带空间规划的重要组成部分,而韧性理念中有关规划-吸收-恢复-适应的演化规律对于海岸带生态修复具有重要的指导意义。以沙化较为典型的海南木兰湾海岸带区域为例,开展海岸带国土空间生态修复规划的方法及应用研究,基于沙化脆弱性和生态系统服务的空间耦合分析划分不同类型空间,并分区制定生态修复规划方案。研究结果表明：（1）沙化脆弱性高的区域主要是旱地和沙地,面积达21.8%,生态系统服务高的区域主要是林地、水域、湿地,面积达67.5%。（2）重建修复区主要位于鱼塘、旱地一带,占总面积的16.4%;人工辅助修复区主要位于旱地以及迎风面一带,面积达5.5%;适度开发区多为基本完全沙化区域,面积为15.8%。相关评估结果和生态修复规划方案能够揭示生态系统各关键因子之间的胁迫-响应机理,为海岸带沙化区域的生态修复及恢复提供科学支撑。     

基于全过程模式的滇池水污染综合治理对策研究——以官渡区为例

在深入分析滇池水质现状、污染来源、水质演变、污染成因、治理现状及存在问题的基础上,探索滇池水污染源头减排、过程控制、末端治理相结合的全过程治理模式,实现统筹兼顾、系统考虑、多管齐下、长期综合治理,并提出适应新形势需求的滇池水污染综合治理对策.以官渡区为具体实践区,探寻通过“点、线、面”结合,全面开展滇池流域水污染防治,最终实现滇池水体保护,湖泊生态系统良性循环,经济、社会、环境持续协调发展的总体目标.     

土地利用/覆盖变化对生态系统服务的影响：空间尺度视角的研究综述

作为连接自然过程与社会过程的桥梁与纽带,生态系统服务与人类福祉和可持续发展息息相关。土地利用/覆盖变化（Land Use/Land Cover Change,LUCC）是生态系统服务变化的重要原因之一,对生态系统服务的影响随着空间尺度的变化而变化。尺度问题一直是LUCC和生态系统服务理论研究与实践管理的重点与难点。系统理解LUCC对生态系统服务影响的尺度特征、尺度差异及尺度关联,对深入LUCC和生态系统服务的尺度效应研究、协调多层次管理机构的制度决策、缓解生态系统服务稀缺对社会经济发展的限制等具有重要意义。本文从空间尺度切入,基于国内外不同尺度LUCC对生态系统服务影响的理论研究和实践进展,总结归纳尺度的概念与内涵,整理介绍考虑空间尺度的研究框架,系统梳理LUCC对生态系统服务影响研究中的空间尺度选择、空间尺度特征及空间尺度关联,评析单一尺度和多尺度研究方法的特点。并提出未来研究中应在构建人文因素与自然因素相结合的研究框架、阐释LUCC对生态系统服务影响的尺度效应、完善LUCC对生态系统服务影响的尺度分析方法等方面开展更深入的研究。     

西部生态脆弱区矿山不同开采强度下生态系统服务时空变化——以神府矿区为例

以神府矿区为例,选取土地利用、植被覆盖、土壤、气象等生态环境与统计数据指标,利用RS和GIS技术构建生态系统服务遥感测量评估指标体系,评估研究区2005-2015年生态系统服务变化及时空分布特征,进一步探究神府矿区不同开采强度对生态系统服务的影响并进行驱动力分析。研究结果表明：（1）2005年、2010年、2015年研究区的总生态系统服务分别为1.598×10¹⁰元、1.905×10¹⁰元、2.134×10¹⁰元,呈现逐年递增的趋势;（2）生态系统服务功能中水土保持价值比例最大,草地的单位面积生态系统服务价值最高,耕地、草地生态系统为该地区贡献了最多的生态系统服务价值;（3）研究区生态系统服务分布表现为由东北向西南逐渐降低的趋势,不同开采强度下的生态系统服务增长变化较为相似,煤炭开采区域生态系统服务未显著下降,整体较为平稳。对生态系统服务变化的驱动分析表明在近年来相对改善的气候环境与人工修复共同作用下,神府矿区生态系统服务未发生明显的缩减。此类半干旱生态脆弱矿区国土空间生态修复适宜通过主动的“保护性开发”以及“人工诱导+自然修复”为主的方式,避免大范围与高强度的水土扰动型治理,通过适度的人为干预保证与维持区域内生态系统服务的功能。研究成果不但揭示高强度煤矿开采下的生态环境变化,也对西部生态脆弱区环境做了定量评估;同时,为将来的矿区重建提供了重要的依据。     

生态系统服务供需关系研究进展与趋势展望

厘清生态系统服务供需关系,对于实现自然资本永续利用与生态系统服务供需协调具有重要意义。结合国内外生态系统服务研究情况,提出了生态系统服务供需关系研究框架,阐释了生态系统服务供需关系形成机制与表现形式,概括了生态系统服务供需关系基本特征,总结了生态系统服务供需关系研究方法,并梳理了未来可能研究方向,以期能够为生态系统服务研究与管理提供参考。总体来看,生态系统服务供需关系产生于两种非排他性机制,主要有簇、权衡、协同与兼容四种表现形式,并具有空间异质性、时间变异性与尺度效应特征;生态系统服务供需关系主要有指数构建与评估、指标统计与分析、情景制定与模拟及空间制图与分析四种研究方法。     

西北地区县域生态系统服务的供需匹配——以甘肃古浪县为例

作为人类福利的源泉,生态系统服务的供需特征及匹配状况反映了区域生态与环境资源的空间配置,分析其供需匹配关系是评价与优化生态系统服务管理、促进生态系统服务供需平衡的重要前提。以西北地区河西走廊东端的古浪县为例,利用气象观测、土地利用、统计年鉴等多源数据,基于InVEST模型、ArcGIS等方法,分析古浪县2017年的产水、碳固持、食物供给和土壤保持四项生态系统服务的供需及其匹配状况。结果表明：（1）古浪县产水、碳固持、食物供给和土壤保持服务供给与需求的总量均表现出供大于求的状态,其供求总量差值依次为：12.45×10⁸ m³、21.55×10⁷ t、3.8×10⁷ t、1.28×10⁷ t,且不同类型的生态系统服务供给与需求存在明显差异。（2）古浪县各项生态系统服务供需匹配类型可划分为高供给高需求、低供给高需求、低供给低需求、高供给低需求,不同区域与不同生态系统服务间的匹配模式存在明显的空间异质性。（3）古浪县生态系统服务供需匹配表现出南中北空间差异性,且呈现集中连片的态势,说明匹配类型相同的乡镇存在“相邻相似”的特征。基于对生态系统服务的供给、需求及匹配状况的分析,进一步提出了不同匹配类型下生态经济发展、城镇化建设、生态可持续化管理、国土空间规划等方面的优化对策。     

Toward livable and healthy urban streets: Roadside vegetation provides ecosystem services where people live and move

Fostering ecosystem services in urban road corridors is an important challenge for urban planning and governance because residents are often exposed to environmental pressures in these ubiquitous open spaces. We here aim at illustrating multiple ecosystem services that may be underpinned by roadside vegetation. Previous work is broadly scattered in papers from the natural and social sciences and biased by a focus both on regulating services (temperature regulation, air filtration, carbon sequestration) and also on trees. We provide a first synthesis that illustrates (i) the multi-functional capacity of green elements in streetscapes to deliver various ecosystem services; (ii) the relevance of planted and wild-grown herbaceous vegetation as well as trees; and (iii) trade-offs between certain ecosystem services as well as risks related to disservices. Trees and herbaceous road vegetation can mitigate adverse environmental conditions in road corridors, which is particularly important in vulnerable neighborhoods that are undersupplied with green spaces. Enhancing the amenity value of streetscapes might also positively influence public health by promoting physical activity. However, significant knowledge gaps exist, e.g. on the contribution of biodiversity to ecosystem services and on the valuation of green street components by different sociocultural groups. Our synthesis illustrates management options that can support planning and governance approaches toward more livable streetscapes by fostering ecosystem services and counteracting disservices.     

The value of urban ecosystem services in New York City: A spatially explicit multicriteria analysis of landscape scale valuation scenarios

Mapping, modeling, and valuing urban ecosystem services are important for integrating the ecosystem services concept in urban planning and decision-making. However, decision-support tools able to consider multiple ecosystem services in the urban setting using complex and heterogeneous data are still in early development. Here, we use New York City (NYC) as a case study to evaluate and analyze how the value of multiple ecosystem services of urban green infrastructure shifts with shifting governance priorities. We first examined the spatial distribution of five ecosystem services – storm water absorption, carbon storage, air pollution removal, local climate regulation, and recreation – to create the first multiple ecosystem services evaluation of all green infrastructure in NYC. Then, combining an urban ecosystem services landscape approach with spatial multicriteria analysis weighting scenarios, we examine the distribution of these ecosystem services in the city. We contrast the current NYC policy preference – which is focused on heavy investment in stormwater absorption – with a valuation approach that also accounts for other ecosystem services. We find substantial differences in the spatial distribution of priority areas for green infrastructure for the valuation scenarios. Among the scenarios we examined for NYC, we find that a scenario in which only stormwater absorption is prioritized leads to the most unevenly distributed ES values. By contrast, we find least variation in ES values where stormwater absorption, local climate regulation, carbon storage, air pollution removal, and recreational potential are all weighted equally.We suggest that green infrastructure planning strategies should include all landscape components that contribute to the production of ecosystem services and consider how planning priority alternatives generate different ecosystem services values.     

Future options for cultivated Nordic peat soils: Can land management and rewetting control greenhouse gas emissions?

Management of peat soils is regionally important as they cover large land areas and have important but conflicting ecosystems services. A recent management trend for drained peatlands is the control of greenhouse gases (GHG) by changes in agricultural practices, peatland restoration or paludiculture. Due to complex antagonistic controls of moisture, water table management can be difficult to use as a method for controlling GHG emissions. Past studies show that there is no obvious relationship between GHG emission rates and crop type, tillage intensity or fertilization rates. For drained peat soils, the best use options can vary from rewetting with reduced emission to efficient short term use to maximize the profit per amount of greenhouse gas emitted. The GHG accounting should consider the entire life cycle of the peatland and the socio-economic benefits peatlands provide locally. Cultivating energy crops is a viable option especially for wet peat soils with poor drainage, but harvesting remains a challenge due to tractability of wet soils. Paludiculture in lowland floodplains can be a tool to mitigate regional flooding allowing water to be stored on these lands without much harm to crops. This can also increase regional biodiversity providing important habitats for birds and moisture tolerant plant species. However, on many peatlands rewetting is not possible due to their position in the landscape and the associated difficulty to maintain a high stable water table. While the goal of rewetting often is to encourage the return of peat forming plants and the ecosystem services they provide such as carbon sequestration, it is not well known if these plants will grow on peat soils that have been altered by the process of drainage and management. Therefore, it is important to consider peat quality and hydrology when choosing management options. Mapping of sites is recommended as a management tool to guide actions. The environmental status and socio-economic importance of the sites should be assessed both for continued cultivation but also for other ecosystem services such as restoration and hydrological functions (flood control). Farmers need advice, tools and training to find the best after-use option. Biofuels might provide a cost-efficient after use option for some sites. Peat extraction followed by rewetting might provide a sustainable option as rewetting is often easier if the peat is removed, starting the peat accumulation from scratch. Also this provides a way to finance the after-use. As impacts of land use are uncertain, new policies should consider multiple benefits and decisions should be based on scientific evidence and field scale observations. The need to further understand the key processes and long term effects of field scale land use manipulations is evident. The recommended actions for peatlands should be based on local condition and socio-economic needs to outline intermediate and long term plans.     

基于生态系统服务多情景权衡的生态安全格局构建——以大连市瓦房店为例

以辽宁省瓦房店市为研究单元,在评估2000年与2014年的食物供给、NPP、产水量及土壤保持四种典型生态系统服务基础上,引入OWA模型,模拟出研究区2014年生态系统服务优先保护区作为生态源地;利用最小累积阻力模型识别生态廊道与缓冲区,构建研究区生态安全格局。研究表明:（1）2000-2014年,瓦房店市生态系统服务时空变化显著,除产水量外,其他生态系统服务均有所增强。（2）综合考虑生态系统服务保护效率（E_i>1）与权衡度（0.68）,选取情景5下的优先保护区作为瓦房店的生态源地。（3）瓦房店生态源地面积为564.92 km²;生态廊道总长度为642.62 km,一级廊道（220.76 km）纵贯南北,次级廊道（421.86 km）呈网状连通分布离散的生态源地。研究结果可为瓦房店市生态系统可持续管理和土地利用优化提供决策支持。     

基于生产可能性边界的黄河三角洲湿地生态系统服务权衡强度

提出了一种基于生产可能性边界（PPF）的湿地生态系统服务权衡强度计算方法,包括湿地生态系统服务定量评估、权衡关系判定、PPF曲线绘制和权衡强度计算四个步骤。以黄河三角洲湿地为研究对象,对保护情景、现状发展情景及开发情景三种土地利用发展模式下的主导生态系统服务进行了定量化权衡分析。结果表明：各生态系统服务间呈现显著相关关系（R²≥0.9,P<0.01）,各发展情景下,栖息地质量与碳储量之间均为协同关系;物质生产与栖息地质量间均为权衡关系,排序为保护情景<基期<现状发展情景<开发情景;而对于物质生产与碳储量之间,在保护及现状发展情景下存在协同关系;而开发情景下转变为权衡关系。该模型通过灵活比较不同生态服务间权衡关系分析进行系列管理规划的方案优选,为实现区域可持续发展提供科学依据。     

科层制度视角下旅游地水资源治理的演变研究——以哈尼梯田为例

旅游业的可持续依赖于各项环境资源的投入及其科学有效的治理,而旅游地公共池塘资源治理问题仍有待深入。水资源作为一类典型的公共池塘资源,是目的地可持续发展的关键。以哈尼梯田核心区为案例,以水权科层概念模型为分析框架,通过半结构访谈、参与式观察等质性研究方法,探讨大众旅游发展前后目的地水权结构的演变历程。研究发现：（1）政体变动和大众旅游业的发展是促成目的地水权结构演变的主要动力,从赋权体系和分配方式两方面影响用户的水资源利用实践;（2）旅游情境下,目的地用户主体的异质性增强,水资源稀缺性提高,商品化趋势明显;（3）科层结构下,集体层级的决策实体作为连接国家层级决策实体和用户层级的中间层,只有充分发挥其监督管理的治理职能才能促进资源的公平利用与可持续发展。现阶段案例地水资源治理以市场力量为主导,而政府管理存在一定缺位,面临可持续发展的挑战。     

人类活动对生态系统服务功能的影响

生态系统服务功能是人类可持续发展的基础,但是人类在利用生态系统提供自然资源和生存环境两个方面的多种服务功能的同时,也在强烈影响生态系统的服务功能。除部分人类活动有利于生态系统服务功能的稳定与提高外,更多地则导致了一系列危及自身生存与发展的生态环境危机与灾难。目前,生态系统服务功能受到人类活动影响的后果已成为全球面临的日益突出的重大问题和人类社会共同关注的焦点,因而人类活动对生态系统服务功能的影响愈加受到人们的重视。论文介绍了生态系统服务功能的定义,阐述了生态系统服务功能的内涵,重点分析了人类活动影响生态系统服务功能的类型、人类活动对生态系统服务功能的影响及变化趋势。在此基础上,对尚待进一步研究的内容提出了建议。     

基于生态系统服务供需关系的广西县域国土生态修复空间分区

国土生态修复是我国土地整治战略发展的需求,其空间分区与管控是实施国土整治与生态修复差别化建设的前提条件。以广西各县市为研究单元,在测算和分析生态系统服务供给量和需求量基础上,利用象限匹配法、双变量局部空间自相关和供需协调度来定量分析生态系统服务供需匹配关系、空间聚集程度和协调关联性,进而探讨和划分广西国土生态修复的空间分区及其管控措施与建议。研究表明：（1）广西各县市生态系统服务供给和需求差异明显。环绕广西的四周山林地和重点生态功能区县生态系统服务供给量较高,大中城市区则较低。生态系统服务需求量自东南向西北逐渐减少。（2）广西生态系统服务供需空间匹配呈现高供高需型、低供高需型、低供低需型、高供低需型四种类型,供需局部空间自相关以高-低或低-高的空间聚集为主,且生态系统服务供需协调度平均值为0.531,处于一般均衡。（3）结合生态系统服务供需匹配四类特征和广西地理环境条件,将广西各县域划分为10个分区,并针对各分区提出差异化整治措施和建议。总体上,生态系统服务高供高需型的区域应以保育为主、培育为辅,防止过度开发;高供低需型的区域以保护为主,提高管理水平;低供高需型的区域应以综合改良为主,提高土地效益;低供低需型的区域应以国土生态重构或重建为主,侧重恢复生态系统。     

Is river rehabilitation economically viable in water-scarce basins?

Decisions on river rehabilitation actions are often based on cost-benefit analyses taking into account the costs and benefits of the considered management actions, but ecosystem services are often not included as benefits, despite recent evidences on the effects of river rehabilitations on ecosystem services. A cost-benefit analysis integrating market and non-market costs and benefits was undertaken in this study to assess the economic feasibility of a river rehabilitation project in a water scarce region, the Yarqon River Rehabilitation project (Israel). In this case, the costs included both the capital costs of implementing rehabilitation measures (including maintenance costs) and the opportunity costs of water allocation (foregone benefits to farmers from water provisioning for agriculture). The benefits of rehabilitation included the net marginal benefits of the cultural ecosystem services at local scale (estimated with a hedonic pricing method), and at regional scale (estimated with a value function transfer), in addition to the habitat service gene-pool protection (estimated with a replacement cost method). Bearing in mind the uncertainties surrounding water resource management decisions, especially in water scarce areas, a sensitivity and risk analysis was conducted using an analysis that included both Monte Carlo simulations and the standardized regression coefficients method. The rehabilitation of the Yarqon River provided positive net present values (approximately $139 million in 30-year period). This was thanks to the provision of cultural ecosystem services and despite the high rehabilitation costs, and that the massive water reallocation involved high foregone benefits to farmers. Therefore, these results highlight that river rehabilitation in water scarce regions can be economically viable due to the social amenity demand for urban rivers.