Estimation of phosphorus flux in rivers during flooding

Reservoirs in Taiwan are inundated with nutrients that result in algal growth, and thus also reservoir eutrophication. Controlling the phosphorus load has always been the most crucial issue for maintaining reservoir water quality. Numerous agricultural activities, especially the production of tea in riparian areas, are conducted in watersheds in Taiwan. Nutrients from such activities, including phosphorus, are typically flushed into rivers during flooding, when over 90 % of the yearly total amount of phosphorous enters reservoirs. Excessive or enhanced soil erosion from rainstorms can dramatically increase the river sediment load and the amount of particulate phosphorus flushed into rivers. When flow rates are high, particulate phosphorus is the dominant form of phosphorus, but sediment and discharge measurements are difficult during flooding, which makes estimating phosphorus flux in rivers difficult. This study determines total amounts of phosphorus transport by measuring flood discharge and phosphorous levels during flooding. Changes in particulate phosphorus, dissolved phosphorus, and their adsorption behavior during a 24-h period are analyzed owing to the fact that the time for particulate phosphorus adsorption and desorption approaching equilibrium is about 16 h. Erosion of the reservoir watershed was caused by adsorption and desorption of suspended solids in the river, a process which can be summarily described using the Lagmuir isotherm. A method for estimating the phosphorus flux in the Daiyujay Creek during Typhoon Bilis in 2006 is presented in this study. Both sediment and phosphorus are affected by the drastic discharge during flooding. Water quality data were collected during two flood events, flood in June 9, 2006 and Typhoon Bilis, to show the concentrations of suspended solids and total phosphorus during floods are much higher than normal stages. Therefore, the drastic changes of total phosphorus, particulate phosphorus, and dissolved phosphorus in rivers during flooding should be monitored to evaluate the loading of phosphorus more precisely. The results show that monitoring and controlling phosphorus transport during flooding can help prevent the eutrophication of a reservoir.     

An empirical model of sediment deposition processes in Lake Kerkini, Central Macedonia Greece

The deposition processes in Kerkini Reservoir, since 1933, are examined in this paper. Built on the course of River Strymonas at the plain of Serres for anti-flooding control, it was gradually developed as a multipurpose reservoir for irrigation and a very important international wetland protected by the Ramsar Treaty. The deposition into Lake Kerkini is caused by the high rates of sediment transport by River Strymonas from the Bulgarian, Serbian and Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia territory drainage basin of Kerkini of 11,600 km². The life expectancy of the original reservoir was approximately 40 years. The sediment transport and the deposition volumes and rates were high during the first stages of Kerkini operation due to deforestations and stockbreeding activities against forested and agricultural areas in southwestern Bulgaria before World War II, which intensify erosion and deposition phenomena in Kerkini’s catchment. They were gradually reduced due to the anti-erosion hydraulic works, extended reforestations mainly in the period 1962–1977, and the natural processes of Strymonas–Kerkini hydrosystem to attain its equilibrium. Based on six systematic bottom surveys of the reservoir from 1933 to 1991, two empirical formulas of the total deposition volume (ΣV _s) and the deposition rates (ΔΣV _s/ΔΣt) through time (Σt) were developed. The results have been compared with other catchments of the broader Balkan area concerning the erosion, sediment yield, sediment deposition volumes, and rates, and it was found in accordance with the measured data. The obtained empirical model was used to estimate the life expectancy of the new rebuilt reservoir of Kerkini in 1984; in the case of natural processes, these do not change dramatically in the transboundary Lake Kerkini catchment. The deposition processes of Kerkini were the major causes of its development into an internationally important wetland and biotope. Kerkini offers development opportunities for scientific research, environmental education, ecotourism, and recreation activities.     

Trends in nutrient and sediment retention in Great Plains reservoirs (USA)

Reservoirs are artificial ecosystems with physical, chemical, and biological transitional characteristics between rivers and lakes. Greater water retention time in reservoirs provides conditions for cycling materials inputs from upstream waters through sedimentation, biological assimilation and other biogeochemical processes. We investigated the effects of reservoirs on the water quantity and quality in the Great Plains (Kansas, USA), an area where little is known about these dominant hydrologic features. We analyzed a 30-year time-series of discharge, total phosphorus (TP), nitrate (NO₃ ^?), and total suspended solids (TSS) from six reservoirs and estimated overall removal efficiencies from upstream to downstream, testing correlations among retention, discharge, and time. In general, mean removal of TP (42–74 %), TSS (0–93 %), and NO₃ ^? (11–56 %) from upstream to downstream did not change over 30 years. TP retention was associated with TSS removal, suggesting that nutrient substantial portion of P was adsorbed to solids. Our results indicated that reservoirs had the effect of lowering variance in the water quality parameters and that these reservoirs are not getting more or less nutrient-rich over time. We found no evidence of temporal changes in the yearly mean upstream and downstream discharges. The ratio upstream/downstream discharge was analyzed because it allowed us to assess how much contribution of additional unsampled tributaries may have biased our ability to calculate retention. Nutrient and sediment removal was less affected by hydraulic residence time than expected. Our study demonstrates that reservoirs can play a role in the removal and processing of nutrient and sediments, which has repercussions when valuing their ecological services and designing watershed management plans.     

Soil erosion and sediment fluxes analysis: a watershed study of the Ni Reservoir,Spotsylvania County,VA, USA

Anthropogenic forces that alter the physical landscape are known to cause significant soil erosion, which has negative impact on surface water bodies, such as rivers, lakes/reservoirs, and coastal zones, and thus sediment control has become one of the central aspects of catchment management planning. The revised universal soil loss equation empirical model, erosion pins, and isotopic sediment core analyses were used to evaluate watershed erosion, stream bank erosion, and reservoir sediment accumulation rates for Ni Reservoir, in central Virginia. Land-use and land cover seems to be dominant control in watershed soil erosion, with barren land and human-disturbed areas contributing the most sediment, and forest and herbaceous areas contributing the least. Results show a 7 % increase in human development from 2001 (14 %) to 2009 (21.6 %), corresponding to an increase in soil loss of 0.82 Mg ha^-1 year^-1 in the same time period. ²¹⁰Pb-based sediment accumulation rates at three locations in Ni Reservoir were 1.020, 0.364, and 0.543 g cm^-2 year^-1 respectively, indicating that sediment accumulation and distribution in the reservoir is influenced by reservoir configuration and significant contributions from bedload. All three locations indicate an increase in modern sediment accumulation rates. Erosion pin results show variability in stream bank erosion with values ranging from 4.7 to 11.3 cm year^-1. These results indicate that urban growth and the decline in vegetative cover has increased sediment fluxes from the watershed and poses a significant threat to the long-term sustainability of the Ni Reservoir as urbanization continues to increase.     

Possible options to slow down the advancement rate of Tarbela delta

The pivot point of delta in Tarbela dam has reached at about 10.6 km from the dam face which may result in blocking of tunnels. Tarbela delta was modeled from 1979 to 2060 using hec-6 model. Initially, the model was calibrated for year 1999 and validated for years 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2006 by involving the data of sediment concentration, reservoir cross sections (73 range lines), elevation-area capacity curves, and inflows and outflows from the reservoir. Then, the model was used to generate future scenarios, i.e., run-1, run-2, and run-3 with pool levels; 428, 442, and 457 m, respectively, till 2060. Results of run-1 and run-2 showed advancement to choke the tunnels by 2010 and 2030, respectively. Finally, in run-3, the advancement was further delayed showing that tunnels 1 and 2 will be choked by year 2050 and pivot point will reach at 6.4 km from the dam face.     

Modeling of Hydrodynamics and Cohesive Sediment Processes in an Estuarine System: Study Case in Danshui River

The Danshui River estuarine system is the largest estuarine system in northern Taiwan and is formed by the confluence of Tahan Stream, Hsintien Stream, and Keelung River. A comprehensive one-dimensional (1-D) model was used to model the hydrodynamics and cohesive sediment transport in this branched river estuarine system. The applied unsteady model uses advection/dispersion equation to model the cohesive sediment transport. The erosion and deposition processes are modeled as source/sink terms. The equations are solved numerically using an implicit finite difference scheme. Water surface elevation and longitudinal velocity time series were used to calibrate and verify the hydrodynamics of the system. To calibrate and verify the mixing process, the salinity time series was used and the dispersion coefficient of the advection/dispersion equation was determined. The cohesive sediment module was calibrated by comparing the simulated and field measured sediment concentration data and the erosion coefficient of the system was determined. A minimum mean absolute error of 4.22 mg/L was obtained and the snapshots of model results and field measurements showed a reasonable agreement. Our modeling showed that a 1-D model is capable of simulating the hydrodynamics and sediment processes in this estuary and the sediment concentration has a local maximum at the limit of salinity intrusion. Furthermore, it was indicated that for Q ₅₀ (the flow which is equaled or exceeded 50% times), the turbidity maximum location during neap tide is about 1 km closer to the mouth compared to that during spring tide. It was found that deposition is the dominant sediment transport process in the river during spring–neap periods. It was shown that, while sediment concentration at the upstream depends on the river discharge, the concentration in the downstream is not a function of river discharge.     

Use of fish functional traits to associate in-stream suspended sediment transport metrics with biological impairment

Loss of ecological integrity due to excessive suspended sediment in rivers and streams is a major cause of water quality impairment in the USA. Current assessment protocols for development of sediment total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) lack a means to link temporally variable sediment transport rates with specific losses of ecological functions as loads increase. In order to accomplish this linkage assessment, a functional traits-based approach was used to correlate site occurrences of 17 fish species traits in three main groups (preferred rearing habitat, trophic feeding guild, and spawning behavior) with suspended sediment transport metrics. The sediment transport metrics included concentrations, durations, and dosages for a range of exceedance frequencies; and mean annual suspended sediment yields (SSY). In addition, this study in the Northwestern Great Plains Ecoregion examined trait relationships with three environmental gradients: channel stability, drainage area, and elevation. Potential stressor responses due to elevated suspended sediment concentration (SSC) levels were correlated with occurrences of five traits: preferred pool habitat; feeding generalists, omnivores, piscivores, and nest-building spawners; and development of ecologically based TMDL targets were demonstrated for specific SSC exceedance frequencies. In addition, reduced site occurrences for preferred pool habitat and nest-building spawners traits were associated with unstable channels and higher SSY. At an ecoregion scale, a functional traits assessment approach provided a means to quantify relations between biological impairment and episodically elevated levels of suspended sediment, supporting efforts to develop ecologically based sediment TMDLs.     

Mineral compositions and sources of the riverbed sediment in the desert channel of Yellow River

The Yellow River flows through an extensive, aeolian desert area and extends from Xiaheyan, Ningxia Province, to Toudaoguai, Inner Mongolia Province, with a total length of 1,000 km. Due to the construction and operation of large reservoirs in the upstream of the Yellow River, most water and sediment from upstream were stored in these reservoirs, which leads to the declining flow in the desert channel that has no capability to scour large amount of input of desert sands from the desert regions. By analyzing and comparing the spatial distribution of weight percent of mineral compositions between sediment sources and riverbed sediment of the main tributaries and the desert channel of the Yellow River, we concluded that the coarse sediment deposited in the desert channel of the Yellow River were mostly controlled by the local sediment sources. The analyzed results of the Quartz-Feldspar-Mica (QFM) triangular diagram and the R-factor models of the coarse sediment in the Gansu reach and the desert channel of the Yellow River further confirm that the Ningxia Hedong desert and the Inner Mongolian Wulanbuhe and Kubuqi deserts are the main provenances of the coarse sediment in the desert channel of the Yellow River. Due to the higher fluidity of the fine sediment, they are mainly contributed by the local sediment sources and the tributaries that originated from the loess area of the upper reach of the Yellow River.     

Impact of rapid urbanisation and industrialisation on river sediment metal contamination

This study aimed at evidencing contaminant inputs from a rapidly growing population and the accompanying anthropogenic activities to river sediments. The Fez metropolitan area and its impacts on the Sebou's sediments (the main Moroccan river) were chosen as a case study. The Fez agglomeration is surrounded by the river Fez, receiving the wastewaters of this developing city and then flowing into the Sebou. The sediment cores from the Fez and Sebou Rivers were extracted and analysed for major elements, butyltins and toxic metals. Normalised enrichment factors and geoaccumulation index were calculated. Toxicity risk was assessed by two sets of sediment quality guideline (SQG) indices. A moderate level of contamination by butyltins was observed, with monobutyltin being the dominant species across all sites and depths. The lowest level of metal pollution was identified in the Sebou's sediments in upstream of Fez city, whilst the Fez' sediments were heavily polluted and exhibited bottom-up accumulation trends, which is a clear signature of recent inputs from the untreated wastewaters of Fez city. Consequently, the sediments of Fez and Sebou at the downstream of the confluence were found to be potentially toxic, according to the SQG levels. This finding is concerned with aquatic organisms, as well as to the riverside population, which is certainly exposed to these pollutants through the daily use of water. This study suggests that although Morocco has adopted environmental regulations aiming at restricting pollutant discharges into the natural ecosystems, such regulations are neither well respected by the main polluters nor efficiently enforced by the authorities.     

Assessment of heavy metals in aquatic sediments

The concentration of heavy metals in the bottom sediment and interstitial water collected from two reservoirs in Singapore was found to be enriched. A distribution coefficient,K _d , was used to assess the chemical stability of heavy metals in the sediments. Numerical models were used to assess (1) the redistribution of heavy metals in a changing environment, and (2) long-term self clean-up capabilities of a reservoir.     

Heavy metal status of sediment in river Cauvery,Karnataka

The purpose of this research work was to appraise extent of heavy metals in sediment and the degree to which its quality tainted seasonally and spatially in river Cauvery. In this study, heavy metals such as Fe, Zn, Ni, Mn, Pb, Cu, Co, Cd and Cr were analysed in sediments. Results were compared with sediment quality guidelines from various derived criteria. Twenty-five sampling points were selected based on geographical proximity of agricultural fields and industrial discharges; river-tributary confluence points; settlements located along the river bank; ritual and recreational activities. Sampling was done for the period of 3 years (2007 to 2009). Digestion of the samples was done by microwave-assisted digestion technique. Analysis was carried out using flame furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer, and results are expressed in micrograms per gram. The mean concentration of Fe (11144 μg/g) followed by Mn (1763.3 μg/g), Zn (93.1 μg/g), Cr (389 μg/g), Ni (27.7 μg/g), Cu (11.2 μg/g), Pb (4.3 μg/g), Co (1.9 μg/g) and Cd (1.3 μg/g) remained within the levels of sediment quality guidelines. Multivariate statistical techniques such as principal component analysis and cluster analysis (CA) were employed to better comprehend the controlling factors of sediment quality and spatial homogeneity among the stations. The sediment geo-accumulation index (I_geo) showed maximum value of Cd (2.69) and least value of Mn (−1.44). The geo-accumulation class (I_geo class) was in the sequence as follows: Cd>Zn>Pb>Cr>Cu>Co>Ni>Fe>Mn. Negative total geo-accumulation indices (I_tot) revealed that mean concentration of heavy metals in the river bed sediment are lower than their respective shale values. The statistical analysis of inter-metallic relationship revealed the high degree of correlation among the metals indicated their identical behaviour during transport. This study concludes that insignificant geo-accumulation with metals except Cd (moderate contamination), Pb and Zn (slight contamination) principally in downstream stretch may perhaps deteriorate the sediment quality due to intensification anthropogenic influences. It also proves that extent of existing metal concentrations in sediments of river Cauvery in Karnataka not exceeded the toxic limit, and there is no peril to the aquatic life.     

EOX concentrations in sediment in the part of the Bothnian Bay affected by effluents from the pulp and paper mills at Kemi, Northern Finland

The Bothnian Bay, which is the northernmost part of the Gulf of Bothnia in Northern Finland, is affected by effluents discharged from point sources such as the pulp and paper mills of Stora Enso Oyj Veitsiluoto Mill and Oy Metsä-Botnia Ab Kemi Mill at Kemi, and the Kemi municipal sewage plant, as well as the River Kemijoki. In this paper we discuss, how modernisation of the wastewater treatment plant at the mills, and process investments in the Best Available Techniques (BAT) for effluent treatment, have decreased the effluent discharges of biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total phosphorus (Tot-P), total nitrogen (TOT-N), total suspended solids (TSS) and adsorbable organically bound halogens (AOX) from the mills since 1988. One specific aim of the study was to determine the EOX (Extractable Organically Bound Halogens) concentrations in bottom sediment of the Bothnian Bay in order to assess whether the EOX concentrations reflect the reduction in discharges of chlorinated compounds. According to the monitoring program carried out every third year between 1997–2006, the decreasing trend in EOX concentrations in the top 2 cm of the bottom sediment reflect the decrease in organochlorine discharges (AOX) from the mills. In 1997 the EOX concentrations in bottom sediment varied between 3–70 μg of Cl g^?1 (dry weight), and in 2006 between 3.3–32 μg of Cl g^?1 (dry weight).     

Total and methyl mercury in the water,sediment, and fishes of Vembanad,a tropical backwater system in India

Mercury contamination in the water bodies of developing countries is a serious concern due to its toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation. Vembanad, a tropical backwater lake situated at the southwest coast of India, is the largest Ramsar site in southern India. The lake supports thousands of people directly and indirectly through its resources and ecosystem services. It is highly polluted with toxic pollutants such as heavy metals, as it receives effluent discharges from Kerala’s major industrial zone. In the present study, water, pore water, sediment, and fish samples collected from Vembanad Lake were analysed for total mercury (THg) and methyl mercury (MHg) contents. The maximum concentrations of THg and MHg in surface water samples were31.8 and 0.21 ng/L, respectively, and those in bottom water samples were 206 and 1.22 ng/L, respectively. Maximum concentration of THg in surface sediment was observed during monsoon season (2850 ng/g) followed by that in the pre-monsoon season (2730 ng/g) and the post-monsoon season (2140 ng/g). The highest sediment concentration of MHg (202.02 ng/g) was obtained during monsoon season. The spatial variation in the mercury contamination clearly indicates that the industrial discharge into the Periyar River is a major reason for pollution in the lake. The mercury pollution was found to be much higher in Vembanad Lake than in other wetlands in India. The bioaccumulation was high in carnivorous fishes, followed by benthic carnivores. The THg limit in fish for human consumption (0.5 mg/kg dry wt.) was exceeded for all fish species, except for Glossogobius guiris and Synaptura orientalis. The concentration of THg was five times higher in Megalops cyprinoides and four times higher in Gazza minuta. Significant variation was observed among species with different habits and habitats. Overall, risk assessment factors showed that the mercury levels in the edible fishes of Vembanad Lake can pose serious health impacts to the human population.     

Sensitivity Analysis and Water Quality Modeling of a Tidal River Using a Modified Streeter–Phelps Equation with HEC-RAS-Calculated Hydraulic Characteristics

A modified Streeter–Phelps equation and the Hydrological Engineering Centers River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) were combined to assess water quality of the Tan-Sui River and its tributaries. The Tan-Sui River is the main source of water supply for northern Taiwan, and the water quality of its stream is significantly affected by tides. In this study, HEC-RAS was employed to assess the impact of tides on water quality and to calculate reoxygenation coefficients. The modified Streeter–Phelps equation was used to calculate water quality in terms of contaminant degradation and reoxygenation. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and ammonia nitrogen (NH₃–N), the most important identified sources of water pollution in the rivers investigated, were evaluated. Dissolved oxygen (DO) was also simulated, since it is often used as a staple of water quality. Results showed that employing HEC-RAS for hydraulic calculations improves the modified Streeter–Phelps simulation. In river sections without tidal influence, water quality was sensitive to the BOD and NH₃–N degradation constants. Downstream of Chin-Mei Creek, while the BOD degradation constant decreased by 80%, BOD and DO concentrations increased from 7.1?mg/L to 10.7?mg/L and 5.0?mg/L to 7.2?mg/L, respectively, indicating that water quality was not as sensitive to variations of the BOD degradation constant as expected. The concentrations of DO and BOD at the river mouth had a significant impact on water quality for the tidal sections of the investigated rivers due to mixing of tidal and river waters. The BOD and NH₃–N degradation constants in the tidal sections had little impact on water quality simulations. This study demonstrated the innovative combination of the modified Streeter–Phelps equation and HEC-RAS to assess the impact of tidal variation and to simulate the water quality of a tidal river when available data is rather limited.     

Evaluation of chromium contamination in water, sediment and vegetation caused by the tannery of Jijel (Algeria): a case study

In order to evaluate the chromium (Cr) contamination due to the discharge of waste waters from the tannery of Jijel in the Mouttas river (Algeria), samples of water, sediment and vegetation (Agropyrum repens) were collected during a 6 month period in four stations located upstream (control) and downstream of the tannery. The total chromium was measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Metal inputs were clearly related to effluent discharges from the tannery into the river. Although only traces of chromium were found in water samples upstream of the tannery, very high concentrations (up to 860 times higher) were detected downstream. The contamination was not limited to water of Mouttas River because a same difference in chromium concentrations was also found in sediments and plants Agropyrum repens that were sampled upstream and downstream of the tannery. This work showed that the treatment process used in the wastewater treatment plant of the tannery of Jijel is not able to remove the chromium detected in their influents. The occurrence and chromium levels detected in the aquatic environment represent a major problem concerning drinking water resources and environmental protection of water bodies.     

Field assessment of flood event suspended sediment transport from ephemeral streams in the tropical semi-arid catchments

An assessment of suspended sediment transport was carried out in a number of semiarid catchments during flood events in order to quantify the degradation rates. In order to quantify these, a systematic sampling procedure of the episodic flood events was proposed for representative catchments. The procedure allows for an integration over the whole run-off episode using both the rising and falling limbs of the run-off hydrograph to compute the sediment quantities for each individual flood event. Higher sediment concentrations occurred in the rising limb than those at the recession for any stage of flow. The maximum suspended sediment concentration was observed at the peak of the flood hydrograph. An integration of the sediment concentration over its duration gave the total sediment yield from the flood event. For the ephemeral channels, only a small number of flood events were observed over a three-year experimental period each with a duration of the order of 3–6 h. It is notable that high sediment loads were associated with high flow volumes which were effectively the result of the catchment characteristics and incident rainfall causing the flood events in the respective catchments. A large percentage of the annual sediment yield from a catchment is transported by the ephemeral streams during a small number of flood events. The correct determination of the total sediment yield from any of the flood events depends entirely on the accuracy of the measurements. The understanding of run-off and sediment loss for the representative catchments aims at assisting planning, management and control of water and land resources for sustainable development in the semi-arid parts of the tropics. The sediment rates reveal the degradation of catchments which have repercussions on the crop and pasture production and this has a bearing on the soil and water conservation programmes in the delicate ecological balance of the semi-arid areas. Further, these rates will determine the lifespan of the reservoirs planned for the dry river valleys (ephemeral streams) and existing ones which serve livestock and domestic needs. These occasionally will require costly rehabilitation and scooping to increase effective storage unless conservation measures are taken, and these measures are bound to vary from place to place as per the representative catchments output.     

Statistical zonation of sediment samples using ratio matching and cluster analysis

A zonation technique for sediment samples based upon contaminant ratios of a series of samples is described. The technique is based on the fact that sediment samples of common origin will tend to have similar ratios of concentrations of trace pollutants such as heavy metals, PCBs, etc., despite dilution by variable amounts of inert materials such as silica or calcite. Comparison of these ratios between individual samples yields a matrix of similarity coefficients, which are then analyzed by a hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis procedure. Sediment samples of similar origin will tend to group together in a single cluster, whereas samples influence by unique factors such as transport patterns or proximity to point source discharges will appear as separate individual clusters. The results of application of this methodology to Great Lakes samples from Hamilton Harbour and Port Hope are presented.     

Estimation of suspended sediment concentration from turbidity measurements using artificial neural networks

Suspended sediment concentration (SSC) is generally determined from the direct measurement of sediment concentration of river or from sediment transport equations. Direct measurement is very costly and cannot be conducted for all river gauge stations. Therefore, correct estimation of suspended sediment amount carried by a river is very important in terms of water pollution, channel navigability, reservoir filling, fish habitat, river aesthetics and scientific interests. This study investigates the feasibility of using turbidity as a surrogate for SSC as in situ turbidity meters are being increasingly used to generate continuous records of SSC in rivers. For this reason, regression analysis (RA) and artificial neural networks (ANNs) were employed to estimate SSC based on in situ turbidity measurements. The SSC was firstly experimentally determined for the surface water samples collected from the six monitoring stations along the main branch of the stream Harsit, Eastern Black Sea Basin, Turkey. There were 144 data for each variable obtained on a fortnightly basis during March 2009 and February 2010. In the ANN method, the used data for training, testing and validation sets are 108, 24 and 12 of total 144 data, respectively. As the results of analyses, the smallest mean absolute error (MAE) and root mean square error (RMSE) values for validation set were obtained from the ANN method with 11.40 and 17.87, respectively. However these were 19.12 and 25.09 for RA. It was concluded that turbidity could be a surrogate for SSC in the streams, and the ANNs method used for the estimation of SSC provided acceptable results.     

Metal pollution assessment of sediment and water in the Shur River

Intensified industrialization and human activities have resulted in the release of various contaminants into the environment. Among them, heavy metals are often present as a result of mining, milling and industrial manufacturing. In the present investigation, bulk concentrations Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Fe, Ca and Al in Shur River (Iran) bed sediments and water around the Sarcheshmeh copper mine were measured from several sample locations. In addition, partitioning was assessed to determine the proportions of metals in different forms. The degree of sediment contamination was evaluated using an Enrichment Factor (EF) and geo-accumulation index (I (geo)) and a newly developed pollution index (I (POLL)). Elevated metals in sediment and water were found to be correlated with areas of the river that were proximal to direct and indirect mining activities. Cadmium and Zn showed the highest pollution index. Cluster analysis was performed in order to assess heavy metal interactions between water and sediment. Chemical partitioning studies revealed that organic metallic bonds were not significantly present in the sediment of the Shur River.     

Assessment of heavy metal concentration in the Khoshk River water and sediment, Shiraz, Southwest Iran

Heavy metal contents and contamination characteristics of the water and sediment of the Khoshk River, Shiraz, Southwest Iran were investigated. The abundance of heavy metals decreases as Zn > Mn > Cr > Ni >Pb > Cu > Cd in water samples and Mn > Cr > Pb > Ni > Zn > Cu > Cd in sediments, respectively. Based on the enrichment factor and geoaccumulation index values, sediments were loaded with Cr, Zn, Pb, Cu, and Cd. Pearson correlation matrix as well as cluster and principal components analyses and analysis of variance were implemented on data from sampling sites. Based on the locations of sampling sites in clusters and variable concentrations at these stations, it was concluded that municipal, industrial, and domestic discharges in the Shiraz urban area strongly affected heavy metals concentrations in the Khoshk River water and sediment. Results obtained from principal components analysis of sediment samples showed that the high concentration of Ni was mainly from natural origin, related to the composition of parent rocks, while the elevated values of Cr, Zn, Pb, Cd, and Cu were due to anthropogenic activities.