Land use structure optimization based on carbon storage in several regional terrestrial ecosystems across China

Land use change is a main driver of carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems. Based on land use data, research results related to carbon densities in vegetation and soil as well as government policies related to development in different regions of China, this paper optimized land use structure in 2020 for different regions with the goal of increasing terrestrial ecosystem carbon storage. We defined seven types of land use: (1) cultivated land, (2) garden land, (3) woodland, (4) pasture land, (5) other agricultural land, (6) urbanized land, and (7) a mixture of other land which we call mixed land which included open water, swamps, glaciers and other land as defined below. We found: (1) For most eastern regions, woodland has the highest carbon (C) densities while C densities of pasture land and cultivated land did not differ widely. Both have C densities higher than urbanized land while urbanized land has higher carbon densities than the areas placed in the mixed land type. (2) Under an optimized land use structure projected for 2020, the area of cultivated land will decrease compared with 2005 for most regions. The areas of garden land, pasture land and other agricultural land are much smaller compared with the mixed land use type, and the changes there are not obvious and their contributions to increased carbon storage are not significant. The area of woodland will increase the most obviously and it will contribute the most to increased carbon storage. The increasing urbanization of land and the decreasing trend of other land types make it difficult to change carbon storage patterns since the Chinese economy is expanding rapidly. (3) The optimized land use structure presented here will have effects on the entire country though with regional differences. Some inland regions will always have a larger potential to increase carbon storage than other areas because the potentialities in some coastal regions are limited by social and economic development.     

中国生态脆弱区叶面积指数变化的主导气象因子研究

开展气候变化背景下中国生态脆弱区叶面积指数（LAI）变化的主导气象因子研究,对揭示该区陆地生态系统的变化规律和生态系统对气候变化的动态响应具有重要意义,并为生态恢复建设提供科学依据。基于CN0 5.1气象数据和全球陆表特征参量（GLASS）LAI产品,利用主成分分析方法研究了中国生态脆弱区1982—2017年LAI的变化特征及其主导气象因子。结果显示：1982—2017年,中国生态脆弱区气温基本呈上升趋势,而降水趋势的区域差异显著。大部分生态脆弱区LAI呈增长趋势,包括干旱半干旱、黄土高原、青藏高原和西南岩溶山地石漠化脆弱区大部,以及北方农牧林草脆弱区西部和东南部、南方农牧脆弱区北部和东南部。中国生态脆弱区LAI增长的主导气象因子是气温,其中生态脆弱区大部LAI增长的主导气象因子是日平均气温,而干旱半干旱脆弱区西部和南方农牧脆弱区LAI增长的主导气象因子分别是和日最低和最高气温。研究表明,在研究时段升温对我国生态脆弱区植被生长有积极影响,但在一些区域受湿度状况调制。     

近30a气候变暖对宁夏植被的影响

研究气候变暖对中国北方农牧交错带植被活动的影响,将有助于地方政府在气候变化背景下科学开展植被恢复和生态保护。利用1982—2013年NOAA-VHP数据,基于Mann-Kendall检验、重新标度极差分析和集合经验模态分解等方法,研究了气候变暖对宁夏植被活动的影响。结果表明,宁夏近30 a的辐射亮温增温趋势明显,温度状态指数在1995年前后发生突变,由气候波动期转向持续增暖期;归一化植被指数的线性增长趋势显著(P0.01),上升幅度为0.012/10 a,植被状态指数在1990年前后发生突变,由植被退化转向持续恢复。植被状态指数与温度状态指数的相关性分析得出,在1995年之前气候变暖对宁夏植被活动的影响不明显,但1995年之后气候变暖对宁夏植被活动有明显促进作用,影响强度由强到弱依次是秋季、冬季、春季和夏季;引起这一变化的原因有两点,一是1995年为气候转向暖干的突变点,二是宁夏从20世纪90年代中后期开始实施了一系列的扬黄灌溉开发和生态治理工程,明显地改变了区域植被的分布格局与类型。     

Adaptation to climate change: changes in farmland use and stocking rate in the U.S.

This paper examines possible adaptations to climate change in terms of pasture and crop land use and stocking rate in the United States (U.S.). Using Agricultural Census and climate data in a statistical model, we find that as temperature and precipitation increases agricultural commodity producers respond by reducing crop land and increasing pasture land. In addition, cattle stocking rate decreases as the summer Temperature-humidity Index (THI) increases and summer precipitation decreases. Using the statistical model with climate data from four General Circulation Models (GCMs), we project that land use shifts from cropping to grazing and the stocking rate declines, and these adaptations are more pronounced in the central and the southeast regions of the U.S. Controlling for other farm production variables, crop land decreases by 6 % and pasture land increases by 33 % from the baseline. Correspondingly, the associated economic impact due to adaptation is around ?14 and 29 million dollars to crop producers and pasture producers by the end of this century, respectively. The national and regional results have implications for farm programs and subsidy policies.     

Rural vulnerability to environmental change in the irrigated lowlands of Central Asia and options for policy-makers: A review

Climate change, land degradation and drought affect millions of people living in drylands worldwide. With its food security depending almost entirely on irrigated agriculture, Central Asia is one of the arid regions highly vulnerable to water scarcity. Previous research of land and water use in the region has focused on improving water-use efficiency, soil management and identifying technical, institutional and agricultural innovations. However, vulnerability to climate change has rarely been considered, in spite of the imminent risks due to a higher-than-average warming perspective and the predicted melting of glaciers, which will greatly affect the availability of irrigation water. Using the Khorezm region in the irrigated lowlands of northwest Uzbekistan as an example, we identify the local patterns of vulnerability to climate variability and extremes. We look at on-going environmental degradation, water-use inefficiency, and barriers to climate change adaptation and mitigation, and based on an extensive review of research evidence from the region, we present concrete examples of initiatives for building resilience and improving climate risk management. These include improving water use efficiency and changing the cropping patterns that have a high potential to decrease the exposure and sensitivity of rural communities to climate risks. In addition, changes in land use such as the afforestation of degraded croplands, and introducing resource-smart cultivation practices such as conservation agriculture, may strengthen the capacity of farmers and institutions to respond to climate challenges. As these can be out-scaled to similar environments, i.e. the irrigated cotton and wheat growing lowland regions in Central Asia and the Caucasus, these findings may be relevant for regions beyond the immediate geographic area from which it draws its examples.     

黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区植被间土壤水分竞争

通过对黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区4 种相邻植被条带（撂荒地、柠条地、苜蓿地、农地）0~4m土壤剖面含水量和地上生物特征的测定分析,研究不同植被之间的水分竞争关系。结果表明：水平方向上,撂荒地和农地土壤含水量随着靠近柠条地和苜蓿地呈下降趋势,且柠条对临近撂荒地土壤水分影响的水平距离至少有6 m。而深根性植物柠条和苜蓿相邻处测点的土壤含水量在所有测点中最低。此外,通过对地上生物特征分析,临近农地的苜蓿和临近撂荒地的柠条有较高的生物指标,证明这两种深根系植物吸收利用了相邻地块的土壤水分。因此,柠条和苜蓿对土壤水分竞争激烈,不宜搭配种植,而深根-浅根植物搭配扩大了深根系植物根系吸水空间,有利于其生长。     

Crops,cows or timber? Including carbon values in land use choices

Farm forestry is a very minor land use in the inland agricultural landscapes of Australia. The Australian Government intends to introduce a program to encourage landholders to trade the carbon sequestration value of plantations and this may change the relative profitability of plantations against other agricultural land uses. This research compares the returns from a timber and ‘carbon’ plantation, with those from grazing and a common crop rotation in the Kingaroy area of Queensland.Typical production patterns for all systems were developed from producer and expert knowledge and soil and vegetation sampling were used to estimate sequestration rates. The costs and benefits of all land use systems were converted into monetary terms and discounted to produce net present values. With a standard discount rate and average commodity prices based on recent history, cultivation is the most profitable option, followed by pasture and plantations. After the inclusion of carbon, plantations are the most profitable option, followed by pasture and cultivation. A number of qualifications of these findings are also discussed.     

Spatial and temporal analysis of vegetation change in agricultural landscapes: A case study of two brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) landscapes in Queensland, Australia

The majority of landscapes around the world have been modified or transformed by human activities to meet the needs of human societies. The loss of native vegetation for agricultural development affects the sustainability of growing proportion of the world's ecosystems. Factors such as land tenure, roads and agricultural intensification, together with biophysical properties, have been cited as drivers of deforestation. This paper combined analysis of the historical drivers of change with analysis of the trends of deforestation since 1945 in two brigalow landscapes (100,000 ha) in sub-tropical Australia. A selection of these drivers were then applied at a property-level (1000 ha) to test their influence on native vegetation retention. Regression trees were used to identify significant human drivers and biophysical properties, and then a generalised linear modelling approach was used to quantify the effect of these factors on the proportion of remnant native vegetation. Results showed that until the mid-20th century, government policies to intensify settlement did not result in increased agricultural production, but since this time, landscape change has been rapid, and has particularly affected ecosystems on fertile clay soils. Although socio-economic factors were critical in driving deforestation, after 60 years of agricultural intensification by far the most significant explanatory variable determining the proportion of native vegetation retained at a property scale was the suitability of the soil for agriculture. Property size was an important secondary influence. The results were not, by and large, consistent with other studies of landscape change and suggest that generalised principles explaining deforestation may be elusive. Solutions to the problem of over-clearance of native vegetation, therefore, need to be tailored to the specific regional situations encountered.     

三峡库区乐天溪流域生态修复效果的遥感监测研究

论文利用多时相LandsatTM E/TM影像、文献和野外调查资料,从土地利用类型与结构、植被覆盖度、土壤侵蚀等方面对三峡库区乐天溪流域生态修复效果进行了定量研究。结果表明:通过5年的生态修复,乐天溪流域林草覆盖率由1997年的80.6%增加到2002年的83.23%,不仅林草覆盖率增长,而且林地质量有较大提高,覆盖度较高的林地和灌丛面积增幅达18.1%和9.1%,相反,疏林面积减少37.9%。流域土地利用结构明显有好转,结构基本合理,相对合理指数由0.76上升到0.81。土地利用结构的改善使得流域土壤侵蚀强度大为降低,微度、中度和强度土壤侵蚀面积分别减少11.49、26.43和4.61km₂,流域平均侵蚀模数由1999年的1562.5tk/m₂降为2002年的870.7t/km₂。生态修复效果显著,但在实际工作中生态修复也需要人工的合理干预。     

Rangeland problems in the Kainji Lake Basin area of Nigeria

There is a continous overlap of interests within the Kainji Lake Basin, Nigeria, resulting in conflicts between land users such as the nomadic Fulanis, peasant farmers and wildlife/forestry conservation authorities. The basin is a major agricultural crop producing area of Nigeria. It is also a main traditional source of dry season supply of pasture and water for the migratory livestock from the Sudan and Sahelian vegetation zones in the north. Within the basin is the Kainji Lake National Park which is fast becoming a big-game tourist centre of international standard.Between Yelwa and Jebba, and within a distance of approximately 50 km around the lake and the River Niger, about 200 000 cattle, 100 000 sheep, 25 000 other livestock (goats, horses, donkeys and dogs), as well as 10 000 wildlife comprised of 14 species are estimated.The physical developments and proposals for agricultural improvement by the Niger River Basin Development Authority are reported upon. Recommendations (with national implications) are advanced ffor eliminating conflicts in the utilization of rangeland within the basin.     

不同等级道路对玛纳斯河流域土地利用与景观格局的影响

为揭示不同等级道路对干旱半干旱地区土地利用与景观格局变化的作用过程与机制,以玛纳斯河流域为例,选取1976年玛纳斯河流域不同等级道路为研究对象,基于1976年和2015年两期土地利用分类数据,利用缓冲区分析方法结合土地利用动态度、土地利用程度综合指数以及景观指数,分析近40年间各等级道路缓冲区及缓冲区梯度上土地利用与景观格局的变化规律。结果表明：（1）近40年来玛纳斯河流域各等级道路对流域土地利用变化影响显著且存在梯度效应,即距离道路越远,受各等级道路的扰动就越小;（2）各等级道路对周边整体土地利用变化的影响程度依次为：高速公路与国道>省道与专用道路>县道与乡道;（3）高速公路与国道、省道与专用道路、县道与乡道分别对其缓冲区范围内林地、水域和建设用地的土地利用变化影响最大;（4）近40年来各等级道路不同缓冲区范围内景观破碎度和异质性均有所增加,而景观蔓延度却有所降低;（5）高速公路与国道、省道与专用道路、县道与乡道分别对其两侧3600 m、600 m和300 m范围内景观的切割作用最为强烈,且距离道路越远景观形状受道路的干扰越小,景观形状越趋于规整。     

基于土地利用变更调查的2010-2016年新疆尉犁县生态系统碳储量时空变化

为全面认识干旱区不同土地利用类型时空变化对区域生态系统碳储量的影响,以地处塔克拉玛干沙漠边缘生态脆弱区的新疆尉犁县为研究对象,基于详细的土地利用变更调查数据（2010-2016年）,利用ArcGIS平台和InVEST模型,分析生态系统碳储量对土地利用变化尤其是二级土地利用类型变化的响应.结果表明:①研究区内,无论是区域平均碳密度还是灌木林地、其他林地、其他草地等主要土地利用类型的碳密度均较低,而面积较少的有林地和天然牧草地碳密度相对较高,因此对这些土地利用类型应着重加强保护.②2010-2016年新疆尉犁县碳存储量净减少24.23×104 t,这主要是由于其他草地、其他园地和果园等土地利用类型被开垦为水浇地,或被建设用地、交通用地占用所导致,而同时研究区内有林地和水浇地面积增加带来了碳储量的提高.③从空间变化看,受不同区域土地利用变化方式的影响,碳储量变化特征也有显著差异,但总体上变化敏感区域集中在塔里木河周边县、乡镇及兵团所在地等人类活动聚集区,这些区域平均碳密度较高,土地利用变化也更为剧烈.④尽管由于开垦行为带来耕地面积增加,从而使得研究区耕地总碳储量增加242.77×104 t,但由于塔里木河沿岸碳密度较高的耕地被建设用地占用,新增耕地多来源于土壤碳储量较低的其他草地等土地利用类型,导致耕地平均碳密度有所下降.研究显示,建设用地占用耕地、林地、草地等地类是尉犁县碳储量减少的重要原因,而林业建设能够带来碳储量增加.因此建议:一方面,推进林、草地建设提高区域生态系统固碳能力;另一方面,重点保护塔里木河周边碳密度较高区域,严控耕地开垦或建设用地占用,同时加强耕地保护,防止通过补充碳密度较低的耕地来弥补碳密度较高区域耕地的流失.      

森林植被对积雪分配及其消融影响研究综述

积雪和融雪作为对北方流域水文与生态具有贡献意义的两个地表过程,与森林植被有着十分紧密的联系。森林植被通过地表遮荫、林冠截留、改变风场格局等方式来改变林区地表积雪分配格局,同时可通过改变林区太阳辐射收支平衡、地表粗糙程度等影响地表融雪速率及其时空分异。在分析积、融雪变量与森林植被相互关系以及总结国内外研究现状的基础上,从林冠几何、林木空间分布、植被类型、森林经营活动等方面归纳了影响积雪分配及其消融速率的主要因素,概括了当前研究面临的主要问题,并提出未来研究的方向和重点。以期为今后林雪关系、雪水文过程研究提供有力参考。     

The cost of mitigation strategies for agricultural adaptation to global change

Land recovery and the improvement of lands affected by desertification for agricultural use, is achieved when a sustained recovery of agricultural productivity over time is obtained. In the areas affected by desertification and drought, it is common that the ecosystems do not have enough funding for water management and irrigation. This situation leads to an inadequate assessment of the environmental goods and services in arid zones. As a result we have a misuse of these dry lands. Many countries are implementing policies and making investments and efforts to mitigate arid land degradation and desertification through the National Action Programs (NAP). However, for the long term planning of mitigation and adaptation strategies, it is necessary to know the cost of recovery and land improvement in certain areas in order to forecast the budgets. This is the main objective of this paper in order to combat desertification and drought in central northern Chile. We have calculated a recovery cost per hectare by region and for each of the agriculture, livestock and forestry (ALF) promotion agencies. The results indicate that the cost of land reclamation in the northern regions is much higher than in the southern regions of this studied area. The cost is especially high for Region II, where investment per hectare is almost to 3000 US$ per hectare. At the other extreme is the Region VII, in the south of the studied area where the investment required per hectare barely reaches 500 US$. The contribution of the promotion agencies to the total cost also varied among regions and agencies. We discuss the results within a context of recovery cost per hectare depending on the different environmental characteristics and agricultural development of each of the studied regions.     

Ecological-breaking zone originates and its ecosystems reconstruction in arid area

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中国城市热岛时空特征及其影响因子的分析

全球气候变暖背景下,城市热岛效应会加重城市地区的热胁迫,对人类健康和生存发展提出严峻挑战.近年来我国雾-霾污染情况严重,但雾-霾对城市热岛影响的认识仍较匮乏.本研究基于MODIS遥感卫星地表温度数据,明确了我国2003~2013年白天、夜间以及四季城市热岛的空间变化,并从生物物理学和生物化学角度定量分析其控制机制.结果表明,影响我国白天城市热岛强度的主要因素为人口、农田灌溉和植被活动.纬度、降水量、反照率以及气溶胶浓度是夜间城市热岛强度的主控因子.从对比城乡粗糙度、反照率等生物物理学属性的角度,揭示了乡村背景环境对城市热岛分析的重要影响.结果表明,雾-霾治理可以缓解我国夜间城市热岛现象和热胁迫,有利于缓解区域甚至全球气候变化.     

2000—2018年鄂尔多斯市植被覆盖度变化及驱动因素分析

植被变化是一个复杂而漫长的过程,受气候变化、土地利用、生态工程、城市化等多种因素的影响,其中人类活动是植被覆盖度变化的重要影响因子,评估区域植被覆盖度的人为影响值具有重要的研究意义. 鄂尔多斯市融入新一轮西部大开发、黄河流域生态保护和高质量发展、黄河“几”字湾都市圈及内蒙古自治区的重要经济增长极等国家和区域战略,是国家重要能源和战略资源基地,且位于我国北方防沙带的南侧,对维护国家整体生态安全具有重要作用. 本文以鄂尔多斯市为研究区,利用遥感数据、气象数据、土地利用数据,采用基于变异系数的人为影响模型,分析鄂尔多斯市2000—2018年植被覆盖度的时空变化,定量探究气候与人类活动对植被变化以及生态环境的影响,识别人类活动影响区域,区分正向、负向影响. 结果表明:2000—2018年鄂尔多斯市植被覆盖度平均值呈现波动性上升趋势,从0.23升至0.35,总体呈现由低、中覆盖向中高、高覆盖转化的趋势. 2000—2018年NDVI变异系数为0.005~4.360,植被稳定性较弱,变异系数高值区与气候因子的相关性未达到显著性水平. 人为变异系数为?0.25~1.50,研究区西部受人类干扰程度较大,而东部受干扰程度较小. 人类活动的正向影响区域主要集中在研究区东部,占研究区总面积的54.00%,与近年来生态保护修复治理密不可分. 人类活动的负向影响区域主要分布在鄂托克旗西北部等区域,土地利用类型为工矿用地,且这些区域是采矿场增加区域之一,很大程度上受到矿产开发的影响,同时该区域处于防风固沙屏障区和生物多样性优先区,不仅关系到鄂尔多斯市的人居安全保障,而且关系到内蒙古自治区乃至京津冀、华北及西北地区的生态安全. 因此需进一步加强人类活动管控工作,协调好经济发展与环境保护的关系,保障生态环境质量持续改善,为地方政府生态环境监管与干旱半干旱区生态保护修复提供科学依据,同时为黄河流域高质量发展以及我国北方生态安全屏障构筑提供重要保障.      

Is climate-smart conservation feasible in Europe? Spatial relations of protected areas,soil carbon,and land values

The expectations on protected areas to deliver not only biodiversity conservation but also to provide an array of different ecosystem services rise. Sequestration and storage of carbon are promising services that protected areas may provide. This study integrates spatially explicit data on terrestrial Natura 2000 sites, soil organic carbon, and agricultural land values to estimate the potential for climate-smart conservation planning in the European Union. The objectives of this study are to analyse spatial relations between protected areas soil carbon content, and land values on the European Union's land area as well as to locate and quantify the proportion of land with high carbon and low economic value within and outside protected areas. We apply a unique interdisciplinary framework with methods ranging from analyses based on geographical information systems, agricultural economics to statistics. Findings indicate that there is a significant overlap between Natura 2000 sites and regions with high carbon content across Europe. Statistical analyses show that carbon-rich regions have significantly lower land values than other areas. Our results suggest that biodiversity protection and mitigation of climate change through conservation of soil carbon could be simultaneously achieved in Europe's protected areas and beyond. We conclude that there is a notable potential for climate-smart conservation in Europe that needs further investigation.     

Certainties and uncertainties of land cover statistics in China

Vegetation or land cover maps have been made directly or indirectly available for the entire territory of China. The certainties and uncertainties d land cover statistics were analyzed by comparing three data sources: China‘ s Vegetation Map, IGPB DISCover, and University of Maryland Product. Great similarities in the statistics of 7 aggregated land cover types were found among the three data sources, particularly between the two global land cover maps. The per-pixel agreement between any 2 of 3 maps was between 38.0%--51.4% ; the per-pixel agreement among all three maps was only 27.1%. Certainties were found in regions where vegetation types are typical and human land use practice is relatively homogenous; the uncertainties occurred to either vegetation transition zones or regions where land cover types and land use practice are relatively diversified. Systematic and multidisciplinacy efforts are necessary to promote accurate mapping of nationwide land cover types in China. Intensive efforts should be made in regions where uncertainties of land cover information are found.     

SWAT模型水文过程参数区域差异研究

探讨SWAT模型的敏感参数和参数值的区域差异,有助于减少水文过程模拟的不确定性,提高模型在不同区域的应用水平。论文在收集SWAT模型的国内应用文献基础上,依据干燥指数将流域划分为湿润区、半湿润区、半干旱区和干旱区,主要采用定性分析方法,分析模型的敏感参数和参数值的空间差异及其影响因素。结果表明,SWAT模型的敏感参数和参数值具有一定的区域差异。对于地表水文过程,径流曲线系数(CN2)和土壤可利用水量(SOL_AWC)在各个区域都比较敏感,土壤蒸发补偿系数(ESCO)在湿润区和半湿润区较为敏感;由于均受土壤质地的影响,湿润区CN2 值高于半湿润区,SOL_AWC则正好相反;受气温和植被覆盖的影响,湿润区和干旱区的ESCO取值高于半湿润区和半干旱区。地下水参数在湿润区和干旱区较为敏感。降雪融雪参数仅在干旱区融雪对径流贡献大的流域才比较敏感。由于气候、土壤、植被条件的区域异质性,导致了流域水文过程参数的区域差异。结果还表明,由于水文过程还受到局部气象条件、下垫面等多种因子共同作用,以及模型尚未揭示的其它因子的影响,模型参数在相同区域的不同流域也存在着一定的差异。