Effects of airborne particulate matter on the acidity of precipitation in Central Missouri

The pH of rainfall in central Missouri was monitored at four sites during the fall of 1983. Several pH values were well above 5.6, the theoretical pH of pure water in equilibrium with ambient levels of CO₂. Most of the higher pHs were measured on rainfall of short duration or rainfall collected during the first few hours of extended rainfall events. Furthermore, the rainfall associated with storm events lasting several days exhibited a trend of decreasing pH with time approaching values as low as 4.0 during the late stages of rainfall. Precipitation pH values above 5.6 apparently reflect neutralization reactions between wet precipitation and various components of airborne dust, especially clays and carbonates. During extended rainfalls, the neutralization effects gradually diminish as suspended dust is washed from the atmosphere yielding more accurate values of the wet precipitation pH. The results of this study suggest that airborne particulate matter generated from the dust bowl region of the U.S. may affect the chemistry of precipitation in areas hundreds of km downwind.     

Identification,abundance and origin of atmospheric organic particulate matter in a Portuguese rural area

Respirable suspended particles high-volume samples were collected from a coastal-rural site in the centre of Portugal in August 1997 and their solvent-extractable organic compounds were subjected to characterisation by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Particles were also analysed by a thermal/optical technique in order to determine their black and organic carbon content. The total lipid extract yields ranged from 20 to 63 μg m⁻³, containing mainly aliphatic hydrocarbons such as n-alkanes, acids, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The higher input of vascular plant wax components was demonstrated by the distribution patterns of the n-alkanes, n-alkanoic acids and n-alkanols homologous series, with C_max at C₂₉, C₂₂/C₂₄ and C₃₀, respectively. The CPI values for these series were in the range 1.8–9.7, being indicative of recent biogenic input from microbial lipid residues and flora epicuticular components. Specific natural constituents (e.g. phytosterols, terpenes, etc.) were identified as molecular markers. Some oxidation products from volatile organic precursors were also present in the aerosols. In addition, all samples had a component of petroleum hydrocarbons representing urban and vehicular emissions probably transported from the nearest cities and from the motorway in the vicinity. This data set could be used to make a mass balance with organic carbon, organic extracts and elutable matter, permitting also the comparison with lipid signatures observed for other regions.     

The occurrence of Rovral and Permethrin in airborne particulate matter

A fungicide (Rovral) and an insecticide (Permethrin) were identified by GC/MS in cyclohexane extracts of airborne particulate matter sampled by filtration at Delft (The Netherlands) during 1981.     

Environmental occurrence of nitrotriphenylene observed in airborne particulate matter

1- and 2-Nitrotriphenylenes were found in the airborne particulate matter extracts collected in central Tokyo between the winter of 1998 and the winter of 1999. In particular, we have identified and quantified nitrotriphenylenes in the airborne particulate matter extracts collected over four consecutive 6-h periods on 2 December 1999. The concentrations of 1- and 2-nitrotriphenylene ranged from 0.04 to 0.44 and from 0.02 to 0.47 ng/m3, respectively, and the concentrations in the airborne particulate matter extracts collected during the 18:00-24:00 h time period were the highest of the four collection periods. 1-Nitropyrene and 2-nitrofluoranthene were also identified and quantified in the four 6-h samples. Although the concentrations of 1- and 2-nitrotriphenylenes were not higher than that of 2-nitrofluoranthene except during the 18:00-24:00 h time period, the concentrations were much higher than that of 1-nitropyrene during the four collection periods.The higher concentrations of 1- and 2-nitrotriphenylenes during the 18:00-24:00 h time period are presumably responsible for the high reactivity of parent triphenylene with NO2/NO3/N2O5, and high stability of 1- and 2-nitrotriphenylenes toward O3 + O2. In addition, the observed isomer distribution of nitrotriphenylenes suggested that direct emission of nitrotriphenylenes is also a source as well as their atmospheric formation.     

The impact of a building implosion on airborne particulate matter in an urban community

In response to community concerns, the air quality impact of imploding a 22-story building in east Baltimore, MD, was studied. Time- and space-resolved concentrations of indoor and outdoor particulate matter (PM) (nominally 0.5-10 microm) were measured using a portable nephelometer at seven and four locations, respectively. PM10 levels varied in time and space; there was no measurable effect observed upwind of the implosion. The downwind peak PM10 levels varied with distance (54,000-589 microg/m3) exceeding pre-implosion levels for sites 100 and 1130 m 3000- and 20-fold, respectively. Estimated outdoor 24-hr integrated mass concentrations varied from 15 to 72 microg/m3. The implosion did not result in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for PM10 being exceeded. X-ray fluorescence analysis indicated that the elemental composition was dominated by crustal elements: calcium (57%), silicon (23%), aluminum (7.6%), and iron (6.1%). Lead was above background but at a low level (0.17 microg/m3). Peak PM10 concentrations were short-lived; most sites returned to background within 15 min. No increase in indoor PM10 was observed even at the most proximate 250 m location. These results demonstrate that a building implosion can have a severe but short-lived impact on community air quality. Effective protection is offered by being indoors or upwind.     

Impact of banning of two-stroke engines on airborne particulate matter concentrations in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Vehicular air pollution is common in growing metropolitan areas throughout the world. Vehicular emissions of fine particles are particularly harmful because they occur near ground level, close to where people live and work. Two-stroke engines represented an important contribution to the motor vehicle emissions where they constitute approximately half of the total vehicle fleet in Dhaka city. Two-stroke engines have lower fuel efficiency than four-stroke engines, and they emit as much of an order of magnitude and more particulate matter (PM) than four-stroke engines of similar size. To eliminate their impact on air quality, the government of Bangladesh promulgated an order banning all two-stroke engines from the roads in Dhaka starting on December 31, 2002. The effect of the banning of two-stroke engines on airborne PM was studied at the Farm Gate air quality-monitoring station in Dhaka (capital of Bangladesh), a hot spot with very high-pollutant concentrations because of its proximity to major roadways. The samples were collected using a "Gent" stacked filter unit in two fractions of 0-2.2 microm and 2.2-10 microm sizes. Samples of fine and coarse fractions of airborne PM collected from 2000 to 2004 were studied. It has been found that the fine PM and black carbon concentrations decreased from the previous years because of the banning of two-stroke engine baby taxies.     

Total element concentration and chemical fractionation in airborne particulate matter from Santiago,Chile

Total element determination and chemical fractionation were carried out in airborne particulate matter (PM₁₀) from the Cerrillos monitoring station in Santiago, Chile, sampled in July (winter), 1997–2003.Element concentration in the period under study (1997–2003) was statistically analyzed through cluster analysis in order to identify groups of elements having similar behavior along time. Elements such as Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, As and Mg show a clear decrease in concentration with time. On the contrary, chromium increases its concentration almost linearly during the period.In order to estimate whether the presence of a certain element in PM₁₀ matrix is mainly due to anthropogenic or natural processes, the enrichment factor of each element was determined.According to their behavior in the sequential extraction procedure, the elements were grouped by multivariate analysis in three clusters: (a) those mobile elements (Pb, Cd, Zn, Mn, Cu and As) which are weakly bound to the matrix (fractions 1 and 2) (b) those elements (V, Ti, and Cr) mainly bound to carbonates and oxides (fraction 3) and (c) the most immobile elements (Ni, Mo, Ca, Mg, Ba and Al), mainly bound to silicates and organic matter (fraction 4). A source of great concern is the fact that elements of such high toxicity as Pb, Cd and As are highly concentrated in both mobile fractions, indicating that these elements have a direct impact on the environment and on the health of the exposed population.     

Elemental composition of airborne particulate matter in the multi-impacted urban area of Thessaloniki,Greece

Ambient concentrations of PM₁₀ and their elemental composition in the multi-impacted area of Thessaloniki, N. Greece is presented in this study. High concentrations of PM₁₀ were observed, with 80% exceedances of the proposed daily limit of 50 μg m⁻³. The elemental concentrations were similar to the levels observed in moderately polluted urban areas. Spatial and temporal variation of particle mass and elemental concentrations as well as the influence of meteorological conditions were examined. The examined elements were characterised with respect to their origin from natural or anthropogenic emissions on the basis of crustal and marine enrichment factors. Factor analysis of elemental composition pattern and elemental ratios in PM₁₀ were also used to identify possible pollution source-types.     

The PAH profiles in airborne particulate matter of five German cities

Over a period of three winter months, airborne particulate matter was collected in Duisburg in 1977/78, 1978/79 and 1979/80, and in addition, in Bremen, Frankfurt, Karlsruhe and Munich in 1978/79. The sampled dust was analysed for its relative amount of 14 selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by way of capillary gas chromatography. A close similarity was found for all PAH profiles obtained so far.     

Source apportionment of airborne fine particulate matter in an underground mine

The chemical mass balance source apportionment technique was applied to an underground gold mine to assess the contribution of diesel exhaust, rock dust, oil mists, and cigarette smoke to airborne fine (<2.5 microm) particulate matter (PM). Apportionments were conducted in two locations in the mine, one near the mining operations and one near the exit of the mine where the ventilated mine air was exhausted. Results showed that diesel exhaust contributed 78-98% of the fine particulate mass and greater than 90% of the fine particle carbon, with rock dust making up the remainder. Oil mists and cigarette smoke contributions were below detection limits for this study. The diesel exhaust fraction of the total fine PM was higher than the recently implemented mine air quality standards based on total carbon at both sample locations in the mine.     

Chemical analysis of airborne particulate matter during a period of unusually high pollution

Airborne particulates were sampled daily in Ghent, Belgium, before, during and after a period of unusually high particulate levels in September 1972. The collected aerosols were chemically analyzed for 44 components. The concentrations of nearly all determined components increased by at least a factor of 8 and afterwards dropped to the original levels under the influence of atmospheric conditions. The anthropogenic origin of the bulk of most elements is demonstrated. On the basis of their concentration patterns the elements are divided in 5 groups, whose origin is explained by results from other investigations in Belgium or by known source characteristics. For all 5 groups readily detectable indicators are proposed.     

The wind speed dependence of the concentrations of airborne particulate matter and NOx

The wind speed dependence of concentrations of PM₁₀, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, organic carbon, elemental carbon, particle number and NO_x has been determined at three separate sites, Marylebone Road (kerbside), North Kensington (urban background) and Harwell (rural). The data are best described by a general dilution term multiplied by up to three separate source-related terms which we interpret as representing long-range transport sources, discrete local (including area) sources and marine sources respectively. Using this approach, the various particulate metrics can be quantitatively disaggregated according to the contributions of the three source types. The behaviour of nitrate is anomalous, probably due to an influence of wind speed upon the dissociation of ammonium nitrate.     

Size distribution of airborne particulate matter and associated heavy metals in the roadside environment

The size distributions of airborne particulate matter (PM) and associated heavy metals Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr, V, Mn, Cu and Fe in different inhalable fractions (< 0.8 microm, 0.8-1.3 microm, 1.3-2.7 microm, 2.7-6.7 microm and > 6.7 microm) were determined at a traffic-orientated urban site in the city of Thessaloniki, northern Greece. The airborne PM displayed a bimodal distribution with most of the mass (52%) contained in the submicron size range (< 0.8 microm) and an additional minor mode (20%) in the coarse size fraction (> 6.7 microm). Characteristic size distributions of heavy metals allowed identification of three main behavioral types: (a) metals whose mass was resided mainly within the accumulation mode (Pb,Cd), (b) those which were distributed between fine, intermediate and coarse modes (Ni,Cu,Mn), and (c) those which were mainly found within particles larger than 2.7 microm in diameter (Fe). The mean mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of PM was found at 0.85+/-0.71 microm, while the mean MMADs of heavy metals followed the order Pb (0.96 +/- 0.71 microm) < Cd (1.14 +/- 0.82 microm) < V (1.38 +/- 0.63 microm) < Ni (1.45 +/- 0.88 microm) < Cu (2.04 +/- 0.77 microm) < Mn (2.61 +/- 1.23 microm) < Cr (2.91 +/- 1.40 microm) < Fe (3.82 +/- 0.88 microm). The measured distributions are believed to result from a combination of processes including local anthropogenic and natural sources, such as traffic, industrial emissions and resuspension of road dust.     

Size distribution and seasonal variation of airborne particulate matter in five areas in Istanbul,Turkey

Goal, scope, and background  

Many studies have focused on measuring fine and course particulate matter (PM) in urban and rural sites around the world. The aim of this research is to gain information on the size distribution of particles. The physical characteristics of PM in the urban air of Istanbul were determined.     

An alternative way to determine the size distribution of airborne particulate matter

We developed and tested a methodology to extract both the size-segregated source apportionment of atmospheric aerosol and the size distribution of each detected element. The experiment is based on the parallel use of a standard low-volume sampler to collect Particulate Matter (PM) and an Optical Particle Counter (OPC). The approach is complementary to size-segregated PM sampling, and it was tested versus a 12-stage cascade impactor. Samples were collected inside the urban area of Genoa (Italy) and their elemental composition was measured by Energy Dispersive-X Ray Fluorescence (ED-XRF). Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) was applied to time series of elemental concentrations to identify major PM sources, and both PM mass concentration and size-segregated particle number concentration were apportioned. Source profiles and temporal trends extracted by PMF were analyzed together with the OPC data to obtain the size distribution for several elements. The new methodology proved to be reliable for the PM apportionment as well as in providing the elemental concentrations in PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 (PM with aerodynamic diameter, D_ae < 10, 2.5, and 1 μm, respectively). The elemental size distributions are in good agreement with those obtained by the cascade impactor for several elements but some discrepancies, in particular for traffic emissions, are stressed and discussed in the text. The new methodology has two main advantages: it only requires standard semi-automatic sampling equipment and compositional analysis and it provides size-segregated information averaged over quite long periods (typically several months). This is particularly important since campaigns with cascade impactors are generally laborious and thus limited to short periods.     

Regional contributions to airborne particulate matter in central California during a severe pollution episode

The externally-mixed source-oriented UCD/CIT air quality model was applied to determine the significance of inter-regional transport for primary and secondary particulate matter (PM) in California's Central Valley during a severe wintertime PM pollution episode from December 15, 2000 to January 7, 2001. The gases and primary PM emitted from eight different geographical sub-regions were tracked separately in a model simulation that included transport, physical and chemical transformation and deposition processes. The model results directly predict the contribution that each sub-region makes to PM concentrations throughout the entire model domain. The boundary layer was relatively stagnant during the simulated 3-week air quality episode, and no consistent transport pattern for primary PM was predicted. Several significant inter-regional transport events were identified that each lasted a few days. Each of these inter-regional events was characterized by transport of gas-phase precursors of nitrate that combined with local emissions of ammonia to produce particulate nitrate. Nitrate already in the particle phase was not transported efficiently due to higher dry deposition rates for particles relative to gas-phase nitrogen oxides. The distinctive pattern of transport for nitrate precursors reflects the relatively long timescales required to convert NO_x emissions to nitrate during winter conditions characterized by low temperatures, weak photolysis rates, and low oxidant concentrations. The equilibrium partitioning of nitrate and ammonia to the particle phase is relatively fast once the nitrate has been produced. The most-likely transport distance for nitrate during the current episode varied from 130–140 km for the northern portion of the Central Valley to 50–60 km in the southern portion of the Central Valley. Sub-regions further south in the Valley have smaller transport distances because of slower wind speeds and the greater abundance of ammonia in these areas, leading to faster conversion of gas-phase reactive nitrogen into particulate nitrate, which has a higher dry deposition rate than the gas-phase species. The most-likely transport distance for primary organic compounds (OC) was found to be less than that for nitrate, varying from 50 to 60 km for the northern portion of the Valley to 20–30 km for southern portion of the Valley. Overall, 68% of the particulate nitrate formed in the most polluted sub-regions of the Central Valley originates from emissions in those same sub-regions. Local emissions controls should therefore provide an effective strategy to reduce airborne particulate matter concentrations to acceptable levels.     

Determination of organic compounds in airborne particulate matter by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Airborne particulate matter from a residential town area was sampled by filtration through glass fiber filters. The benzene extractable compounds were subjected to a separation into neutral, acidic and basic substances. The acidic fraction was converted to the methylated derivatives before analysis.The partly evaporated residues were analyzed qualitatively by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with computerized data acquisition. The generation of mass chromatograms for specific ion fragment masses permitted the location of mass spectra. Interpretation and comparison with reference data led to the identification of more than 100 compounds. In the neutral fraction, saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and polar oxygenated substances were identified. The acidic fraction consisted mainly of a homologue series of fatty acids and aromatic carboxylic acids some of them with hydroxysubstitution. The basic fraction consisted of the nitrogen containing analogues of the important polyaromatic hydrocarbons present in the neutral fraction.Estimates of the range of concentrations of various substances were made by the addition of standard amounts of a reference compound and the integration of the mass spectrometer output; some of the concentrations could not be determined very accurately because of the incomplete retention of the more volatile compounds during sampling.     

Metals in airborne particulate matter from the first and second industrial complex area of Taejon city, Korea

To understand the metal distribution characteristics in a rapidly urbanized area, we collected and analyzed particulate matter (PM) samples for the metal concentrations. Using our measurement data for various metal species, we examined both the extent of metal pollution in the study area and the seasonality in their distribution characteristics. Results showed that each metal exhibited their occurrences in diverse concentration ranges over several orders of magnitude such as the mean values ranging from minimum value of 0.07 (Be) to maximum value of 1633 ng m(-3) (Fe). In addition, the extent of metal pollution in the study area was in general comparable with those typically observed from a strongly polluted urban area, if comparison was made with the results of previous studies. Examinations of their temporal distribution patterns indicated that most of metals tend to exhibit seasonal peaks during winter (or spring) seasons, similarly to the observed pattern for PMs. Moreover to explain the factors regulating their mobilization properties, the data were analyzed through the application of correlation analysis. Results of our correlation analysis showed that most metals can exhibit strong positive correlations each other, while they tend to be inversely correlated with most of important meteorological parameters (including air temperature and precipitation). Based on the overall results of our study, we conclude that the site may be strongly impacted by man-made sources but that many characteristics of their cycling are not significantly different from those generally observed from natural environments.