Behavior of sartans (antihypertensive drugs) in wastewater treatment plants,their occurrence and risk for the aquatic environment

Pharmaceuticals and other anthropogenic trace contaminants reach wastewaters and are often not satisfactorily eliminated in sewage treatment plants. These contaminants and/or their degradation products may reach surface waters, thus influencing aquatic life. In this study, the behavior of five different antihypertonic pharmaceuticals from the sartan group (candesartan, eprosartan, irbesartan, olmesartan and valsartan) is investigated in lab-scale sewage plants. The elimination of the substances with related structures varied broadly from 17 % for olmesartan up to 96 % for valsartan. Monitoring data for these drugs in wastewater effluents of six different sewage treatment plants (STPs) in Bavaria, and at eight rivers, showed median concentrations for, e.g. valsartan of 1.1 and 0.13 μg L^?1, respectively. Predicted environmental concentrations (PEC) were calculated and are mostly consistent with the measured environmental concentrations (MEC). The selected sartans and the mixture of the five sartans showed no ecotoxic effects on aquatic organisms in relevant concentrations. Nevertheless, the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the environment should be reduced to minimize the risk of their distribution in surface waters, ground waters and bank filtrates used for drinking water.     

The occurrence of antihistamines in sewage waters and in recipient rivers

Background, aim and scope  Each year, large quantities of pharmaceuticals are consumed worldwide for the treatment and prevention of human and animal diseases. Although the drugs and the metabolites observed in the wastewaters and in the environment are present at concentrations several orders of magnitude lower than the concentrations required to exert their effects in humans or animals, their long-term impact on the environment is commonly not known. In this study, the occurrence of six antihistamines, which are used for the relief of allergic reactions such as hay fever, was determined in sewage treatment plants wastewaters and in recipient river waters. Materials and methods  The occurrence of the antihistamines cetirizine, acrivastine, fexofenadine, loratadine, desloratadine and ebastine in sewage treatment plants wastewaters and in recipient river waters was studied. The analytical procedure consisted of solid-phase extraction of the water samples followed by liquid chromatography separation and detection by a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer in the multiple reaction mode. Results  Cetirizine, acrivastine and fexofenadine were detected in both influent and effluent wastewater samples at concentration levels ranging from about 80 to 220 ng/L, while loratadine, desloratadine and ebastine could not be detected in any samples. During sewage treatment, the concentration of the antihistamines dropped by an average of 16–36%. Furthermore, elevated concentrations of antihistamines were observed in samples collected during the season of most intensive plant pollen production, i.e. in May. In the river water samples, the relative pattern of occurrence of cetirizine, acrivastine and fexofenadine was similar to that in the wastewater samples; although the concentration of the compounds was substantially lower (4–11 ng/L). The highest concentrations of the studied drugs were observed near the discharging point of the sewage treatment plant. Discussion  The highest concentrations of antihistamines in STP wastewaters correlate with the outbreak of allergic reaction caused by high amounts of plant pollens in the air. The analysis results of the river water samples show that the antihistamines are carried far away from the effluent discharge points. They may account for a part of the mix of pharmaceuticals and of pharmaceutical metabolites that occur downstream of STPs. Conclusions  Antihistamines are poorly degraded/eliminated under the biological treatment processes applied in the wastewater treatment plants and, consequently, they are continuously being discharged along with other drugs to the aquatic environment. Recommendations and perspectives  As a huge quantity and variety of drugs and their metabolites are continuously discharged to rivers and the sea, the compounds should be considered as contaminants that may possess risks to the aquatic ecosystem. Further studies are urgently needed on the environmental fate of the antihistamines and other pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. These studies should be concerned with the stability of the compounds, their transformation reactions and the identity of the transformation products, the distribution of drugs and their uptake and effects in organisms. On the basis of these studies, the possible environmental hazards of pharmaceuticals may be assessed.     

Do pharmaceuticals affect freshwater invertebrates? A study with the cnidarian Hydra vulgaris

Pharmaceuticals enter natural waters through sewage effluent and landfill leachates and present an unknown risk to aquatic species including freshwater invertebrates. In this study the acute and chronic toxicity of 10 drugs, commonly prescribed in the UK i.e. ibuprofen, paracetamol, acetylsalicylic acid, amoxicillin, bendroflumethiazide, furosemide, atenolol, diazepam, digoxin, amlodipine were assessed using the cnidarian Hydra vulgaris. In a 7 day exposure period there were no effects on survival at concentrations up to 1.0 mg l(-1) and after 17 days neither feeding nor bud formation were adversely affected. However the ability of dissected polyps to regenerate a hypostome, tentacles and foot was inhibited by diazepam, digoxin and amlodipine at 10 microg l(-1). It is suggested that other drugs targeted at mammalian receptor systems may also affect aquatic invertebrates although it is unlikely, at their low environmental concentrations, that those examined in this study actually present a risk.     

Occurrences and potential risks of 16 fragrances in five German sewage treatment plants and their receiving waters

Fragrances are used in a wide array of everyday products and enter the aquatic environment via wastewater. While several musk compounds have been studied in detail, little is known about the occurrence and fate of other fragrances. We selected 16 fragrance compounds and scrutinized their presence in Bavarian sewage treatment plants (STP) influents and effluents and discussed their ecological risks for the receiving surface waters. Moreover, we followed their concentrations along the path in one STP by corresponding time-related water sampling and derived the respective elimination rates in the purification process. Six fragrance substances (OTNE, HHCB, lilial, acetyl cedrene, menthol, and, in some grab samples, also methyl-dihydrojasmonate) could be detected in the effluents of the investigated sewage treatment plants. The other fragrances under scrutiny were only found in the inflow and were eliminated in the purification process. Only OTNE and HHCB were found in the receiving surface waters of the STP in congruent concentrations, which exceeded the preliminary derived environmental thresholds by a factor of 1.15 and 1.12, respectively, indicating potential risks. OTNE was also detected in similar concentration ranges as HHCB in muscles and livers of fish from surface waters and from ponds that are supplied with purified wastewater. The findings show that some fragrance compounds undergo high elimination rates, whereas others—not only musks—are present in receiving surface water and biota and may present a risk to local aquatic biota. Hence, our results suggest that the fate and potential effects of fragrance compounds in the aquatic environment deserve more attention.     

Occurrence and potential risk of triclosan in freshwaters of São Paulo,Brazil—the need for regulatory actions

Triclosan (TCS) is a broad-spectrum bactericide, highly toxic to algae, which is released into the environment via wastewater effluents. Predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs) for aquatic biota have been proposed in the literature, varying from 1.4 to 1,550 ng/L, reflecting contradicting protection goals. In this work, six rivers in the state of São Paulo were monitored for TCS and caffeine, a tracer for untreated sewage disposal, over a period of more than 1 year. From 71 samples analyzed, 32 contained TCS at concentrations above the limit of quantification, ranging from 2.2 to 66 ng/L, corresponding to a frequency of exceedance of the lowest PNEC of 86 % (six out of seven sites). No correlation between TCS and caffeine was observed, and one of the reasons for that could be the different use patterns in the local populations. Given the high values found in the investigated rivers, TCS seems to be a strong candidate in the priority list of compounds that should be regulated in Brazil to preserve the aquatic environment.     

Occurrence and fate of the human pharmaceutical metabolite ritalinic acid in the aquatic system

To investigate the occurrence and fate of ritalinic acid - the main human metabolite of the psychostimulant drug methylphenidate - in the aquatic environment, a HPLC-electrospray-MS/MS method for the quantification of ritalinic acid in wastewater, surface water and bank filtrate was developed. Carbamazepine known as very stable in the aquatic environment was analyzed as anthropogenic marker in parallel. Furthermore, the removal of ritalinic acid was studied in a sewage treatment plant using an activated sludge system during a field study and in lab-scale plants. In good agreement between lab-scale and field studies a low removal rate of 13% and 23%, respectively, was determined. As a consequence, the concentration of ritalinic acid in the wastewater effluents were in the range of <50-170 ngL(-1) which corresponds to a mean specific load per capita of 17.7 μgd(-1). Ritalinic acid has further been detected in German rivers at concentrations of 4-23 ngL(-1) and in bank filtrate samples in 100-850 m distance from the river up to 5 ngL(-1) demonstrating the widespread occurrence of this stable metabolite in the aquatic environment. A comparison to available sales data shows that a significant amount of methylphenidate applied can be found in waters as ritalinic acid.     

A risk assessment of selected phthalate esters in North American and Western European surface waters

Potential risks to aquatic organisms by four commercial phthalate esters, dimethyl (DMP), diethyl (DEP), di-n-butyl (DBP), and butylbenzyl (BBP), were assessed using measured and calculated concentrations in North American and Western European surface waters. Predicted no effect concentrations (PNECs) were calculated using statistical extrapolation procedures and the large aquatic toxicity database. Surface water concentrations of DMP, DEP, DBP, and BBP were calculated using reported emissions to US surface waters from the toxics release inventory (TRI). Monitoring data obtained from the US EPA STORET database and literature surveys from North America and Western Europe show that DMP, DEP, DBP, and BBP are infrequently detected in surface water. Calculated and measured concentrations of DMP, DEP, DBP, and BBP are typically several orders of magnitude below their respective PNECs, indicating that these phthalate esters do not pose a ubiquitous threat to aquatic organisms in North American and Western European surface waters.     

Occurrence of aminopolycarboxylates in the aquatic environment of Germany

Aminopolycarboxylic acids, such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), 1,3-propylenediaminetetraacetic acid (1,3-PDTA), beta-alaninediacetic acid (beta-ADA), and methylglycinediacetic acid (MGDA), are used in large quantities in a broad range of industrial applications and domestic products in order to solubilize or inactivate various metal ions by complex formation. Due to the wide field of their application, their high polarity and partly low degradability, these substances reach the aquatic environment at considerable concentrations (in the microg/L-range) and have also been detected in drinking water. This review evaluates and summarizes the results of long-term research projects, monitoring programs, and published papers concerning the pollution of the aquatic environment by aminopolycarboxylates in Germany. Concentrations and loads of aminopolycarboxylates are presented for various types of water including industrial and domestic waste waters, surface waters (rivers and lakes), raw waters, and drinking waters.     

Perfluorochemicals in water reuse

Faced with freshwater shortages, water authorities are increasingly utilizing wastewater reclamation to augment supplies. However, concerns over emerging trace contaminants that persist through wastewater treatment need to be addressed to evaluate potential risks. In the present study, perfluorinated surfactant residues were characterized in recycled water from four California wastewater treatment plants that employ tertiary treatment and one that treats primary sewage in a wetland constructed for both treatment and wildlife habitat. Effluent concentrations were compared with surface and groundwater from a creek where recycled water was evaluated as a potential means to augment flow (Upper Silver and Coyote Creeks, San Jose, CA). In the recycled water, 90-470 ng/l perfluorochemicals were detected, predominantly perfluorooctanoate (PFOA; 10-190 ng/l) and perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS; 20-190 ng/l). No significant removal of perfluorochemicals was observed in the wetland (total concentration ranged 100-170ng/l across various treatment stages); in this case, 2-(N-ethylperfluorooctanesulfonamido) acetic acid (N-EtFOSAA), perfluorodecanesulfonate (PFDS), and PFOS were dominant. Though there is currently no wastewater discharge into the creeks, perfluorochemicals were found in the surface water and underlying groundwater at a total of 20-150 ng/l with PFOS and PFOA again making the largest contribution. With respect to ecotoxicological effects, perfluorochemical release via recycled water into sensitive ecosystems requires evaluation.     

Synthetic musks in the aquatic environment and personal care products in Shanghai, China

The concentrations and distributions of six polycyclic musks and two nitro musks in Suzhou Creek, influent/effluent of a sewage treatment plant (STP), and household commodities were investigated and discussed in this study. The levels of 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexa-methylcyclopenta(g)-2-benzopyran (HHCB) and 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN) in Suzhou Creek were 3-78 ng g(-1) (dry weight) and 2-31 ng g(-1) (dry weight) in sediments, while 20-93 ng l(-1) and 8-20 ng l(-1) in surface waters. The results indicated a low proportion of wastewater burden in this river. The concentrations of HHCB and AHTN in the effluent of the STP were 5- to 6-fold higher than those in Suzhou Creek. The amounts discharged into the aquatic environment from sewage in Shanghai are 1.26 t (HHCB) and 0.38 t (AHTN) in 2007, and the input into the STPs is estimated to be HHCB 0.2 g y(-1) and AHTN 0.06 g y(-1) per inhabitant, respectively. A broad concentration range of HHCB and AHTN could be observed in household commodities. The distributions are in accordance with the profiles of musks in aquatic environment, with HHCB and AHTN being the major components.     

Impact of wastewater treatment plants on receiving surface waters and a tentative risk evaluation: the case of estrogens and beta blockers

Five estrogenic hormones (unconjugated?+?conjugated fractions) and 10 beta blockers were analyzed in three wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents and receiving river waters in the area of Lyon, France. In the different samples, only two estrogens were quantified: estrone and estriol. Some beta blockers, such as atenolol, acebutolol, and sotalol, were almost always quantified, but others, e.g., betaxolol, nadolol, and oxprenolol were rarely quantified. Concentrations measured in river waters were in the nanogram per liter range for estrogens and between 0.3 and 210 ng/L for beta blockers depending on the substance and the distance from the WWTP outfall. The impact of the WWTP on the receiving rivers was studied and showed a clear increase in concentrations near the WWTP outfall. For estrogens, the persistence in surface waters was not evaluated given the low concentrations levels (around 1 ng/L). For beta blockers, concentrations measured downstream of the WWTP outfall were up to 16 times higher than those measured upstream. Also, the persistence of metoprolol, nadolol, and propranolol was noted even 2 km downstream of the WWTP outfall. The comparison of beta blocker fingerprints in the samples collected in effluent and in the river also showed the impact of WWTP outfall on surface waters. Finally, a tentative environmental risk evaluation was performed on 15 sites by calculating the ratio of receiving water concentrations to predicted non-effect concentrations (PNEC). For estrogens, a total PNEC of 5 ng/L was considered and these substances were not linked to any potential environmental risk (only one site showed an environmental risk ratio above 1). Unfortunately, few PNECs are available and risk evaluation was only possible for 4 of the 10 beta blockers studied: acebutolol, atenolol, metoprolol, and propranolol. Only propranolol presented a ratio near or above 1, showing a possible environmental risk for 4 receiving waters out of 15.     

Drugs in the environment: emission of drugs, diagnostic aids and disinfectants into wastewater by hospitals in relation to other sources--a review.

After administration, pharmaceuticals are excreted by the patients into wastewater. Unused medications are sometimes disposed of in drains. The drugs enter the aquatic environment and eventually reach drinking water if they are not biodegraded or eliminated during sewage treatment. Additionally, antibiotics and disinfectants are supposed to disturb the wastewater treatment process and the microbial ecology in surface waters. Furthermore, resistant bacteria may be selected in the aeration tanks of STPs by the antibiotic substances present. Recently, pharmaceuticals have been detected in surface water, ground water and drinking water. However, only little is known about the significance of emissions from households and hospitals. A brief summary of input by different sources, occurrence, and elimination of different pharmaceutical groups such as antibiotics, anti-tumour drugs, anaesthetics and contrast media as well as AOX resulting from hospital effluent input into sewage water and surface water will be presented.     

Occurrence,elimination, and risk of anticoagulant rodenticides and drugs during wastewater treatment

Anticoagulants are biocides widely used as pest control agents in agriculture, urban infrastructures, and domestic applications for the control of rodents. Other anticoagulants such as warfarin and acenocoumarol are also used as drugs against thrombosis. After use, anticoagulants are discharged to sewage grids and enter wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Our hypothesis is that WWTP effluents can be a source of anticoagulants to receiving waters and that these can affect aquatic organisms and other nontarget species. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to determine the occurrence of 11 anticoagulants in WWTPs receiving urban and agricultural wastewaters. Warfarin was the most ubiquitous compound detected in influent waters and was partially eliminated during the activated sludge treatment, and low nanograms per liter concentration were found in the effluents. Other detected compounds were coumatetralyl, ferulenol, acenocoumarol, flocoumafen, brodifacoum, bromadiolone, and difenacoum at concentrations of 0.86–87.0 ng L^?1. Considering water volumes of each WWTP, daily emissions were estimated to be 0.02 to 21.8 g day^?1, and thus, WWTPs contribute to the loads of anticoagulants to receiving waters. However, low aquatic toxicity was observed using Daphnia magna as a model aquatic organism.     

Occurrence, distribution, and sources of six phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals in the 22 river estuaries around Dianchi Lake in China

The objectives of this study are to track the occurrence, distribution, and sources of phenolic endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in the 22 rivers around Dianchi Lake in China, to estimate the input and output amounts of phenolic EDCs in the water system, and to provide more comprehensive fundamental data for risk assessment and contamination control of phenolic EDCs in aquatic environment. Six phenolic EDCs were systematically evaluated in water and surface sediment in the estuaries of those rivers. The water and sediment samples were preconcentrated by solid-phase extraction system and microwave-assisted extraction system, respectively. Phenolic EDCs were analyzed by GC-MS (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA) after derivatization. Phenolic EDCs were found ubiquitously in the aquatic environment. The total concentrations ranged from 248 to 4,650 ng/L in water, and 113 to 3,576 ng/g dry weight in surface sediment. The residue amount of phenolic EDCs in Dianchi Lake was 258 kg/a. Concentrations of the phenolic EDCs in the Lake decreased with increase in distance to the estuaries of those rivers which run through urban and industrial areas. The rivers seriously contaminated by phenolic EDCs were Xin River, Yunliang River, Chuanfang River, Cailian River, Jinjia River, Zhengda River, and Daqing River which run through the old area of Kunming City. Satisfying correlations were observed between the concentrations of the target compounds in water and in surface sediment. NP1EO, NP2EO, and BPA were identified as the three predominant phenolic EDCs. There were significant correlations between phenolic EDCs and many basic water quality parameters. Urban and industrial areas are the major contributors for phenolic EDCs, especially in Kunming City. Compositional profiles of phenolic EDCs in surface sediment were similar to those in river water. The concentrations of phenolic EDCs in the rivers located in the northwest part of the valley were very high, and posed a potential risk to aquatic organisms and even human. The concentrations of NP2EO, NP1EO, and BPA were at moderate levels of other areas. The basic water quality parameters (TOC, TN, DO, and pH) play important roles on the distribution, fate, and behavior of phenolic EDCs in the valley.     

Occurrence of endocrine disrupters and selected pharmaceuticals in Aisonas River (Greece) and environmental risk assessment using hazard indexes

Purpose

The presence of four phenolic endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs: nonylphenol [NP], NP monoethoxylate[NP1EO], bisphenol A [BPA], triclosan, [TCS]) and four nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs: ibuprofen[IBF], ketoprofen [KFN], naproxen [NPX], diclofenac [DCF]) in a Greek river receiving treated municipal wastewater was investigated in this study.

Methods

Samples were taken from four different points of the river and from the outlet of a sewage treatment plant (STP) during six sampling campaigns, and they were analyzed using gas chromatography?Cmass spectrometry.

Results

According to the results, EDCs were detected in almost all samples, whereas NSAIDs were detected mainly in wastewater and in the part of the river that receives wastewater from the STP. Among the target compounds, the highest mean concentrations in the river were detected for NP (1,345?ng?L^?1) and DCF (432?ng?L^?1). Calculation of daily loads of the target compounds showed that STP seems to be the major source of NSAIDs to the river, whereas other sources contribute significantly to the occurrence of EDCs. The environmental risk due to the presence of target compounds in river water was estimated, calculating risk quotients for different aquatic organisms (algae, daphnids, and fish). Results denoted the possible threat for the aquatic environment due to the presence of NP and TCS in the river.     

Pilot monitoring study of ibuprofen in surface waters of north of Portugal

Ibuprofen is amongst the most worldwide consumed pharmaceuticals. The present work presents the first data in the occurrence of ibuprofen in Portuguese surface waters, focusing in the north area of the country, which is one of the most densely populated areas of Portugal. Analysis of ibuprofen is based on pre-concentration of the analyte with solid phase extraction and subsequent determination with liquid chromatography coupled to fluorescence detection. A total of 42 water samples, including surface waters, landfill leachates, Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP), and hospital effluents, were analyzed in order to evaluate the occurrence of ibuprofen in the north of Portugal. In general, the highest concentrations were found in the river mouths and in the estuarine zone. The maximum concentrations found were 48,720 ng?L^?1 in the landfill leachate, 3,868 ng?L^?1 in hospital effluent, 616 ng?L^?1 in WWTP effluent, and 723 ng?L^?1 in surface waters (Lima river). Environmental risk assessment was evaluated and at the measured concentrations only landfill leachates reveal potential ecotoxicological risk for aquatic organisms. Owing to a high consumption rate of ibuprofen among Portuguese population, as prescribed and non-prescribed medicine, the importance of hospitals, WWTPs, and landfills as sources of entrance of pharmaceuticals in the environment was pointed out. Landfill leachates showed the highest contribution for ibuprofen mass loading into surface waters. On the basis of our findings, more studies are needed as an attempt to assess more vulnerable areas.     

Phenolic xenoestrogens in surface water, sediments, and sewage sludge from Baden-Württemberg, south-west Germany.

Nine structurally different phenolic chemicals, which have been reported to mimic estrogen effects, were determined in various aquatic environmental compartments. Twenty-three water samples from five streams and rivers showed levels up to 458 ng/l for 4-nonylphenol (4NP), 189 ng/l for 4-t-octylphenol (4tOP), 272 ng/l for bisphenol A (BPA) and 47 ng/l for 2-hydroxybiphenyl (2OHBiP). Elevated levels of these compounds in a stream with a high load of effluents of sewage treatment plants (STPs), compared to a brook free of sewage, identified STPs as major sources. With a similar order, 4NP (10-259 micrograms/kg dry matter), 4tOP (< 0.5-8 micrograms/kg), BPA (< 0.5-15 micrograms/kg), and 2OHBiP (2-69 micrograms/kg) were also detected regularly in riverine sediment (n = 11). Levels in sewage sludge were one order of magnitude higher than in sediments. 4-Hydroxybiphenyl and 4-chloro-3-methylphenol were found predominantly in sludge and sediment in the lower ppb range.     

Polycyclic musk compounds in higher trophic level aquatic organisms and humans from the United States

Polycyclic musks, 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta[g]-2-benzopyran (HHCB) and 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN), are used as fragrance ingredients in numerous consumer products such as cleaning agents and personal care products. Studies have reported the widespread occurrence of these musks in surface waters and fish from western European countries. Nevertheless, little is known about their accumulation in humans and wildlife in the United States. In this study, we measured concentrations of HHCB and AHTN in human adipose fat collected from New York City. Furthermore, tissues from marine mammals, water birds, and fish collected from US waters were analyzed to determine the concentrations of HHCB and AHTN. Concentrations of HHCB and AHTN in human adipose fat samples ranged from 12 to 798 and from <5 to 134 ng/g, on a lipid weight basis, respectively. A significant correlation existed between the concentrations of HHCB and AHTN in human adipose fat. Concentrations of HHCB and AHTN were not positively correlated with age or gender of the donors. HHCB was found in tissues of several wildlife species, but not in the livers of polar bear from the Alaskan Arctic. Among wildlife species analyzed, spinner and bottlenose dolphins collected from Florida coastal waters contained measurable concentrations of HHCB.     

Psychoactive drugs: occurrence in aquatic environment,analytical methods,and ecotoxicity—a review

This review focused on seven psychoactive drugs being six benzodiazepines (alprazolam, bromazepam, clonazepam, diazepam, lorazepam, and oxazepam) and one antidepressant (citalopram) widely consumed by modern society and detected in different aqueous matrices (drinking water, surface water, groundwater, seawater, estuary water, influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plants). The review included 219 selected scientific papers from which 1642 data/entries were obtained, each entry corresponding to one target compound in one aqueous matrix. Concentrations of all investigated drugs in all aqueous matrices varied from 0.14 to 840,000 ng L^?1. Citalopram presented the highest concentrations in the aqueous matrices. Based on the Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test, differences between wastewater influents and effluents were not significant for most wastewater categories, suggesting that conventional wastewater treatment systems as such do not remove or remove partially these compounds. High-income countries showed much lower concentrations in surface water than the group formed by upper-middle-, lower-middle-, and low-income countries. Regarding analytical methods, solid-phase extraction (SPE) was by far the most used extraction method (83%) and performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (73%) coupled to mass spectrometry (99%) the most common analytical method. Changes in behavior and in survival rates were the most common effects reported on bioindicators (aquatic species) due to the presence of these drugs in water. Concentrations of psychoactive drugs found in surface waters were most of the time within the range that caused measurable toxic effects in ecotoxicity assays.     

An integrated assessment of estrogenic contamination and biological effects in the aquatic environment of The Netherlands

An extensive study was carried out in the Netherlands on the occurrence of a number of estrogenic compounds in surface water, sediment, biota, wastewater, rainwater and on the associated effects in fish. Compounds investigated included natural and synthetic hormones, phthalates, alkylphenol(ethoxylate)s and bisphenol-A. The results showed that almost all selected (xeno-)estrogens were present at low concentrations in the aquatic environment. Locally, they were found at higher levels. Hormones and nonylphenol(ethoxylate)s were present in concentrations that are reportedly high enough to cause estrogenic effects in fish. Field surveys did not disclose significant estrogenic effects in male flounder (Platichthys flesus) in the open sea and in Dutch estuaries. Minor to moderate estrogenic effects were observed in bream (Abramis brama) in major inland surface waters such as lowland rivers and a harbor area. The prevalence of feminizing effects in male fish is largest in small regional surface waters that are strongly influenced by sources of potential hormone-disrupting compounds. High concentrations of plasma vitellogenin and an increased prevalence of ovotestes occurred in wild male bream in a small river receiving a considerable load of effluent from a large sewage treatment plant. After employing in vitro and in vivo bioassays, both in situ and in the laboratory, we conclude that in this case hormones (especially 17 alpha-ethynylestradiol) and possibly also nonylphenol(ethoxylate)s are primarily responsible for these effects.