Towards guidelines for post‐disaster vulnerability reduction in informal settlements

Although the development community has long recognised that securing land tenure and improving housing design can benefit significantly informal settlement residents, there is little research on these issues in communities exposed to natural disasters and hazards. Informal settlements often are located on land left vacant because of inherent risks, such as floodplains, and there is a long history worldwide of disasters affecting informal settlements. This research tackles the following questions: how can informal settlement vulnerabilities be reduced in a post‐disaster setting?; and what are the key issues to address in post‐disaster reconstruction? The main purpose of the paper is to develop a set of initial guidelines for post‐disaster risk reduction in informal settlements, stressing connections to tenure and housing/community design in the reconstruction process. The paper examines disaster and reconstruction responses in two disaster‐affected regions—Jimani, Dominican Republic, and Vargas State, Venezuela—where informal settlements have been hit particularly hard.     

Disaster vulnerability of businesses in the 2001 Nisqually earthquake

Abstract

This paper examines the impacts of the February, 2001, Nisqually earthquake on businesses. Focusing on two hard-hit business districts in Seattle, the study investigates the extent of losses, patterns of disparities, and underlying loss factors. A conceptual framework is proposed of how business vulnerability dimensions contribute to disaster loss. Interviews were conducted with owners and managers of 107 businesses. Data were gathered on impacts, methods of finance, and disaster preparedness. Results showed that business losses were much greater than what standard statistical data would imply. Analysis found that a composite index of vulnerability—based on business sector, size, and building occupancy tenure—provides a very powerful predictor of business loss. Physical damage was a much weaker predictor of loss. Moreover, business recovery was influenced not only by characteristics of the business itself, but also by conditions in the neighborhood.     

基于GIS的城镇建筑物易损性分析与应用研究

利用城镇地籍数据信息,基于GIS软件进行建筑物易损性和居民安全风险分析与应用研究。通过对某县城中最具代表性的一个街坊建筑物的易损性分析和居民安全风险分析实例应用研究,重点讨论并实现了利用现有数字化地籍图、城镇地籍数据库及土地调查记录等信息;并结合建筑物震害损失评估模型和人员伤亡预测方法,完成不同结构类型的建筑物在不同地震烈度条件下的破坏造成的经济损失评估和人员伤亡程度的预测,对城市防灾减灾进行辅助决策支持与评估。     

西藏沙漠化灾害现状及其驱动力研究

西藏自治区是我国沙漠化灾害问题较为严重的地区之一,有沙漠化灾害土地19．974万km^2占全区土地总面积的16．58％,包括重度、中度、轻度3级和流动沙（丘）地、半固定沙（丘）地、固定沙（丘）地、裸露沙砾地、半裸露沙砾地5类沙漠化灾害土地,其中以中度沙漠化灾害土地和裸露沙砾地类沙漠化灾害土地为最多。沙漠化灾害将使区内生态环境与生存条件恶化,破坏建设工程,直接影响农业生产,导致人民生活贫困,并构成严重的潜在压力,造成了巨大的经济损失,平均年经济损失高达34．5亿元。驱动力分析表明,西藏的土地沙漠化灾害是在近期“全球变化”背景下气候干暖化和人为的过度经济活动共同促成的。     

Measuring populations' vulnerabilities for famine and food security interventions: the case of Ethiopia's Chronic Vulnerability Index

The concept of vulnerability has become an important part of food security analyses since the 1980s. It is seen as having two sides: exposure to external hazards; and an inability to cope with those shocks, attributed to social, political, and economic factors. Numerous attempts have been made to construct models to determine levels of vulnerability among populations. This paper analyses one such attempt, the Chronic Vulnerability Index (CVI), developed to measure levels of vulnerability to food insecurity in Ethiopia. The example of the CVI reveals many of the difficulties associated with producing a basic model of vulnerability that can be used in disaster mitigation. Ultimately, the CVI assumes that vulnerability is a linear, additive phenomenon with discrete causes and effects and fails to capture interactions between hazards and the human systems that produce and complicate them. The paper concludes with a discussion of alternatives to the CVI.     

A critical analysis of earthquakes and urban planning in Turkey

The land use plans and policies of developed countries that live with the threat of earthquakes are gaining importance in reducing or eliminating the long‐term threat to people and property. In developing countries, however, these plans and policies seem to increase the level of vulnerability. This paper examines the effects of the earthquakes that have occurred in Turkey since 1992, with a particular focus on urbanisation and planning policies. It is based on extensive surveys carried out on location immediately after the earthquakes in Erzincan and Kocaeli‐Gölcük in 1992 and 1999, respectively. The analysis takes into account several factors, including the height of buildings, geological conditions and the construction period. The authors conclude that land use planning can serve as a very useful instrument for mitigating the extent of disaster damage if it is part of an appropriate planning system. In the case of Turkey, the planning system needs to be reorganised for this purpose.     

Identifying and mapping community vulnerability

Disaster vulnerability is socially constructed, i.e., it arises out of the social and economic circumstances of everyday living. Most often discussed from the perspective of developing nations, this article extends the argument using American demographic trends. Examples from recent disasters, Hurricane Andrew in particular, illustrate how certain categories of people, such as the poor, the elderly, women-headed households and recent residents, are at greater risk throughout the disaster response process. Knowledge of where these groups are concentrated within communities and the general nature of their circumstances is an important step towards effective emergency management. Emergency planners, policy-makers and responding organisations are encouraged to identify and locate high-risk sectors on Community Vulnerability Maps, integrating this information into GIS systems where feasible. Effective disaster management calls for aggressively involving these neighbourhoods and groups at all levels of planning and response, as well as mitigation efforts that address the root causes of vulnerability.     

区域承灾体脆弱性指标体系与精细量化模型研究

灾害损失的严重程度由致灾环境的危险性、承灾体的脆弱性,以及区域的应急能力决定的。承灾体脆弱性研究对灾害风险管理、区域防灾减灾、减灾投资,以及灾害保险等有着重要的意义。建立了针对自然灾害的区域承灾体脆弱性评估指标体系;在此基础上,引入精细化土地类型,基于GIS对承灾体脆弱性做了基于精细网格的量化模型研究;并以浙江德清县自然灾害区划为例进行了试验。     

土地利用变化对农业自然灾害灾情的影响机理(一)──基于实地调查与统计资料的分析

上地利用变化不仅影响区域灾情的结构与类型,还深刻影响其灾情程度．本文以处在北方农牧交错带中段、深受旱灾影响的内蒙古乌兰察布盟为案例,基于统计资料及野外调查,剖析了在气候干旱化程度加剧、农作物成灾面积在波动中增大的趋势下,粮食产量在波动中增长的机理．结果表明,在上地利用中,粮食作物种植结构及其面积比例的调整,增强了粮食生产系统抵御农业自然灾害的能力。因此,调整上地利用结构是一种有效的减灾措施．     

沿海地区台风灾害系统脆弱性过程诊断与评估以福建省为例——以福建省为例

基于自然灾害系统理论，分析了导致和影响台风灾害系统脆弱性过程的主要因素，并提出了脆弱性的诊断思路。通过分析，建立了台风灾害发生过程和灾害发生以后的脆弱性评估指标体系和评估模型，构建了台风灾害系统脆弱性综合指数模型，并以福建县域为单元，对福建省台风灾害系统脆弱性过程进行评价。研究表明，福建省台风灾害系统脆弱性呈上升趋势，空间上高值区集中分布在沿海地区，有从东部沿海向西部扩展的趋势。反映台风强度和福建人口、经济地区差异显著，建议应该制定区域综合减灾模式，逐步降低脆弱性，提高防御台风灾害能力。     

沿海地区台风灾害系统脆弱性过程诊断与评估——以福建省为例

基于自然灾害系统理论,分析了导致和影响台风灾害系统脆弱性过程的主要因素,并提出了脆弱性的诊断思路。通过分析,建立了台风灾害发生过程和灾害发生以后的脆弱性评估指标体系和评估模型,构建了台风灾害系统脆弱性综合指数模型,并以福建县域为单元,对福建省台风灾害系统脆弱性过程进行评价。研究表明,福建省台风灾害系统脆弱性呈上升趋势,空间上高值区集中分布在沿海地区,有从东部沿海向西部扩展的趋势。反映台风强度和福建人口、经济地区差异显著,建议应该制定区域综合减灾模式,逐步降低脆弱性,提高防御台风灾害能力。     

城市暴雨灾害的影响程度及对策研究——以长沙市为例

通过对近年暴雨资料、城市建成区平均高程数据和城市排水管网资料的考察,以及对城市暴雨灾害危险性、脆弱性、暴露性的分析,制定了适用于长沙市的暴雨灾害风险评估方法。利用该方法对长沙市现有建成区798个地块的暴雨灾害风险进行了评估,将其分为高风险区、中风险区、低风险区3个类别。在此基础上,总结了长沙市暴雨灾害风险区的分布规律,并提出了一系列对策措施,包括更新城市排水管网、建设地下集水库、建立雨水自排系统和建设紧急排涝系统等。     

区域社会经济“易灾性”综合评价实践

本文从时间——空间两个角度,结合某一城市,对其社会经济“易灾性”进行综合评价和分析,其结果可为灾害损失预测,防灾费用投放规划,防灾工程评价等防灾决策领域提供依据。     

Measuring vulnerability to natural hazards: a macro framework

The measurement of vulnerability—defined here as the asymmetric response of disaster occurrences to hazardous events—signifies a key step towards effective disaster risk reduction and the promotion of a culture of disaster resilience. One of the reasons for not being able to do the same in a wider context is related to conceptual, definitional, and operational issues. This paper presents an operationally feasible framework for conducting this task and measures revealed macro vulnerability as a function of disaster risk and hazard probability. The probabilities of hazard and its perceived disaster risk were obtained from past data and from probability distributions. In this paper, the corresponding analytical framework is constructed using the case study of floods in Assam, India. The proposed indicator will help policymakers to draw on available macro‐level data to identify the regions that are vulnerable to disasters, where micro‐level disaster vulnerability assessments could be performed in greater detail.     

基于“3S”技术的村镇住宅洪灾脆弱性曲线研究

脆弱性曲线常用来表示各类承灾体的洪灾损失率与洪水特征之间的关系,是洪灾风险评价方法中的关键部分。为了构建村镇住宅洪灾脆弱性曲线,以2010年永吉县口前镇洪灾为案例,根据抽样理论运用GPS技术开展了村镇住宅洪灾损失的实地调查;运用RS技术和GIS技术提取出洪水淹没水深用以补充未调查房屋的淹没水深数据;采用回归分析方法建立了各类平房住宅水深-损失率之间的关系,用以表征脆弱性曲线。结果表明:居民住宅的洪灾损失率与水深高度相关,且在同一淹没水深下,平房住宅的使用时间越长损失率越大。脆弱性曲线的建立为计算洪灾潜在损失和区域防灾减灾提供了依据。     

北京山区泥石流灾害保险的风险评判方法研究

泥石流是北京山区主要的自然灾害,在1989-1999年期间,泥石流灾害造成的经济损失高达3.09亿元.对泥石流灾害保险风险的评判是首先按北京山区各区县的泥石流危险度分区划分风险区,然后对各风险区进行灾害危险性和灾害易损性评判.在危险性评判中,按各风险区的泥石流危险度等级赋予危险度评判指标值.在易损性评判中,选择国内生产总值、固定资产、人口密度和人口自然增长率等4个因素作为评判指标,并分为两个层次进行评判.第一层次是经济易损性与社会易损性评判,第二层次是泥石流灾害易损性评判.最后用泥石流灾害保险风险分析数学模型,计算出各风险区的泥石流灾害保险风险度,并由此绘制了北京山区泥石流灾害保险风险区划图.     

关于雾灾几个相关问题的探讨

首先,基于灾害系统的理论,构建了雾灾灾害系统模式和灾害链模式,提出了以机场和高速公路为承灾体的雾灾灾害链.其次,构建了雾灾承灾体脆弱性评价体系和模型,并对中国雾灾脆弱性分省区进行了评价,结果表明雾灾脆弱性高值区是上海、北京、天津3市;次高值区是江苏、山东、海南、广东等省.最后,以2002年12月的一次大雾天气为例,运用灰色关联度方法,着重对机场客运的雾灾灾情进行了评估,以期为雾灾损失厘定和防灾减灾提供科学的依据.     

京津唐地区地震灾害区域宏观脆弱性变化研究

研究灾害脆弱性的变化有助于深入理解灾害及灾害风险的形成机制。在重新审视承灾体系统灾害脆弱性的分析层次和描述角度之后,深化了对地震灾害区域宏观脆弱性的影响因素和描述指标的再认识,完善了以主成分分析为核心技术的分析该类脆弱性时空变化的数理方法。以此为基础,以1985、1995、2000和2004年为代表时期,对京津唐地区20多年来的地震灾害区域宏观脆弱性的变化做了进一步的分析和总结。主要结论是:研究区地震灾害区域宏观脆弱性20多年来的时空变化可分解为少数几种脆弱性模式的变化;1985年以来,该类脆弱性的空间分异格局整体稳定;但是,各地自身脆弱与否的程度20多年来的变化却很显著——各大中城市市区的脆弱程度显著增强,其他地区整体减弱,且变化幅度前者显著大于后者;研究区地震灾害区域宏观脆弱性的时空变化主要受该地区的人口和经济特别是工商业经济的增长、城市化发展和产业结构的调整等3方面因素所驱动。     

The politics of risk in the Philippines: comparing state and NGO perceptions of disaster management

It is now generally appreciated that what constitutes vulnerability to one person is not necessarily perceived as such by the next. Different actors 'see' disasters as different types of events and as a result they prepare for, manage and record them in very different ways. This paper explores what different perceptions of vulnerability mean in terms of the understanding and practices of two significant sets of actors and stakeholders involved in disaster preparedness and management in the Philippines: the state and NGOs. Approaches to disaster are not just a function of people's perceptions of disaster risk but also of their understanding of the prevailing social order and social relations. Despite a shared vocabulary—which increasingly presents disasters as processes rather than events, takes a proactive rather than a reactive approach, and favours the inclusion of stakeholders rather than solely relying on technocratic management—different realities continue to make for different responses.     

城市地震灾害预测的基本内容和减灾决策过程

本文研究了下列四个问题：（１）对我国现有建筑进行了易损性分类，并定义了一个区分易损性类别的定量指标；（２）按目前现有建筑建立了各类易损性结构的震害矩阵和它们与未来若干年后的震害矩阵的关系；（３）分析并了种类易损性结构的地震损失率；（４）提出了一个人员死亡的估计方法和确定减灾方案的决策方法。