Tomato journeys from farm to fruit shop

Popular calls to buy products with fewer embodied greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions belie the complexity involved in providing accurate information necessary for such consumer decisions to be effective. This study follows greenhouse-grown tomatoes from Australian farms to fruit shops in Sydney, Australia and investigates practicalities of accounting for GHG emissions in this fresh food chain. Data came from semi-structured interviews with farmers, wholesalers who operate at the (wholesale) Sydney Markets and retailers. GHG emissions were estimated using quantitative methodologies including Australian National Greenhouse Account Factors. A qualitative analysis of stakeholder views and knowledge was also conducted. Conclusions include that, per unit of tomatoes, on-farm GHG emissions appear far greater than those from fuel used for transport to Sydney Markets, and from wholesale or retail activities. Food mile or more comprehensive carbon labelling would probably not be practical for this supply chain. Factors likely to affect potential change among higher emitting participants are costs and availability of lower GHG-emitting practices. Mixed-method studies help identify parts of a chain to target emission reduction efforts.     

Linking climate policy across economic sectors: A case for green growth in Nepal

While the energy sector is the largest global contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the agriculture, forestry, and other land use (AFOLU) sector account for up to 80% of GHG emissions in the least developed countries (LDCs). Despite this, the nationally determined contributions (NDCs) of LDCs, including Nepal, focus primarily on climate mitigation in the energy sector. This paper introduces green growth—a way to foster economic growth while ensuring access to resources and environmental services—as an approach to improving climate policy coherence across sectors. Using Nepal as a case country, this study models the anticipated changes in resource use and GHG emissions between 2015 and 2030, that would result from implementing climate mitigation actions in Nepal's NDC. The model uses four different scenarios. They link NDC and policies across economic sectors and offer policy insights regarding (1) energy losses that could cost up to 10% of gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030, (2) protection of forest resources by reducing the use of biomass fuels from 465 million gigajoules (GJ) in 2015 to 195 million GJ in 2030, and (3) a significant reduction in GHG emissions by 2030 relative to the business-as-usual (BAU) case by greater use of electricity from hydropower rather than biomass. These policy insights are significant for Nepal and other LDCs as they seek an energy transition towards using more renewable energy and electricity.     

The environmental life cycle assessment of agricultural sector in Thailand: EIO‐LCA approach

Agriculture is one of the major sectors in Thailand, with more than half of the population employed in agriculture‐related occupations. This study evaluated energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the Thai agricultural sector by applying the economic input–output life cycle assessment (EIO‐LCA) approach. The model evaluates the entire agricultural sector supply chain. Based on one million Thai baht (approximately $27,800 U.S. dollars) final demand of the rice paddy sector, the carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from the electricity sector are responsible for 27% (1,246 kilograms [kg] CO₂) of the total CO₂ emissions, whereas the emissions from paddy activities associated with the fertilizers and pesticides sector account for 16% (760 kg CO₂) and 11% (513 kg CO₂), respectively. The top three largest GHG emissions from the total agricultural sector supply chain are associated with the oil palm, the coffee and tea, and the fruit sectors. The government should promote and encourage sustainable agriculture by reducing the use of fertilizers and pesticides and by utilizing energy‐saving technologies.     

Greenhouse gas emissions from forestry operations: a life cycle assessment

Most forest carbon assessments focus only on biomass carbon and assume that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from forestry activities are minimal. This study took an in-depth look at the direct and indirect emissions from Pacific Northwest (PNW) Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco] forestry activities to support or deny this claim. Greenhouse gas budgets for 408 "management regimes" were calculated using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. These management regimes were comprised of different combinations of three types of seedlings (P + 1, 1 + 1, and large plug), two types of site preparation (pile and burn, and chemical), 17 combinations of management intensity including fertilization, herbicide treatment, pre-commercial thinning (PCT), commercial thinning (CT), and nothing, and four different rotation ages (30, 40, 50, and 60 yr). Normalized to 50 yr, average direct GHG emissions were 8.6 megagrams (Mg) carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) ha(-1), which accounted for 84% of total GHG emissions from the average of 408 management regimes. Harvesting (PCT, CT, and clear cutting) contributed the most to total GHG emissions (5.9 Mg CO2e per 700 m3 harvested timber), followed by pile and burn site preparation (4.0 Mg CO2e ha(-1) or 32% of total GHG emissions) and then fertilization (1.9 Mg CO2e ha(-1) or 15% of total GHG emissions). Seedling production, seedling transportation, chemical site preparation, and herbicide treatment each contributed less than 1% of total GHG emissions when assessed per hectare of planted timberland. Total emissions per 100 m3 averaged 1.6 Mg CO2e ha(-1) over all 408 management regimes. An uncertainty analysis using Monte Carlo simulations revealed that there are significant differences between most alternative management regimes.     

Assessing alternatives for mitigating net greenhouse gas emissions and increasing yields from rice production in China over the next twenty years

Assessments of the efficacy of mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from paddy rice systems have typically been analyzed based on field studies. Extrapolation of the mitigation potential of alternative management practices from field studies to a national scale may be enhanced by spatially explicit process models, like the DeNitrification and DeComposition (DNDC) model. Our objective was to analyze the impacts of mitigation alternatives, management of water, fertilizer, and rice straw, on net GHG emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide fluxes), yields, and water use. After constructing a GIS database of soil, climate, rice cropping area and systems, and management practices, we ran DNDC with 21-yr alternative management schemes for each of the approximately 2500 counties in China. Results indicate that, despite large-scale adoption of midseason drainage, there is still large potential for additional methane reductions from Chinese rice paddies of 20 to 60% over 2000-2020. However, changes in management for reducing CH4 emissions simultaneously affect soil carbon dynamics as well as N2O emissions and can thereby reorder the ranking of technical mitigation effectiveness. The order of net GHG emissions reduction effectiveness found here is upland rice > shallow flooding > ammonium sulfate > midseason drainage > off-season straw > slow-release fertilizer > continuous flooding. Most of the management alternatives produced yields comparable to the baseline; however, continuous flooding and upland rice significantly reduced yields. Water management strategies appear to be the most technically promising GHG mitigation alternatives, with shallow flooding providing additional benefits of both water conservation and increased yields.     

The jurisdictional framework for municipal action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions: Case studies from Canada, the USA and Germany

This paper addresses two questions: (1) Given a commitment at the national level to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, what tools are available to national-level governments to induce complimentary actions required at subnational levels? (2) In the absence of a serious commitment at national and regional levels to reduce GHG emissions, what is the scope for, and jurisdictional rights of, cities to undertake actions? In this context, federal, regional and municipal legislation relevant for GHG emissions is examined in Canada, the USA and Germany. Regarding the first question, different national governments find themselves in considerably different positions to implement climate initiatives at subnational levels, with the German government in the strongest position and the Canadian government in the weakest. The implications of this for a nation's willingness to adopt emission reduction targets could be serious. Regarding the second question, there are few significant differences among Canadian, US and German municipalities' jurisdictional capabilities (and limitations) to reduce GHG emissions. Though limited in their legal capacity, these municipalities demonstrate that through their own, often informal, initiatives they can reinforce and compliment the more formal, regulatory actions by senior-level governments, thereby paving the way for senior-level governments to deliver meaningful domestic emission reductions.     

Mitigation paths for Chinese iron and steel industry to tackle global climate change

Based on a recognition of the essence of climate change and the pressure on China to reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, this paper interprets the important role that the Chinese iron and steel industry may play in managing emissions. Through an investigation of the key sources of GHG emissions in the Chinese iron and steel industry, a comparison of the current Chinese and international situations, and a survey of the technology and methods available for reducing GHG emissions, and their application in China, the authors analyze the major issues currently faced by the Chinese iron and steel industry, and propose the following four approaches through which the industry might reduce its GHG emissions: (1) encouragement of clean development mechanism (CDM) projects, mainly involving secondary energy reuse, to provide capital and technology for GHG reduction activities in China; (2) stimulation of the social responsibility-based voluntary carbon market (VCM) to increase the long-term benefits for the Chinese iron and steel industry from emission reductions; (3) undertaking of strict energy auditing to help enterprises establish appropriate emission reduction targets and formulate reasonable plans; (4) promotion of emission reduction-oriented investment within the industry to obtain profits from project operation, while at the same time gaining extra compensation for emission reductions. More specifically, the design of each of these approaches should take into consideration the related economic factors and incentive mechanisms.     

Effects of reed straw, zeolite, and superphosphate amendments on ammonia and greenhouse gas emissions from stored duck manure

Stored poultry manure can be a significant source of ammonia (NH) and greenhouse gases (GHGs), including nitrous oxide (NO), methane (CH), and carbon dioxide (CO) emissions. Amendments can be used to modify physiochemical properties of manure, thus having the potential to reduce gas emissions. Here, we lab-tested the single and combined effects of addition of reed straw, zeolite, and superphosphate on gas emissions from stored duck manure. We showed that, over a period of 46 d, cumulative NH emissions were reduced by 61 to 70% with superphosphate additions, whereas cumulative NO emissions were increased by up to 23% compared with the control treatment. Reed straw addition reduced cumulative NH, NO, and CH emissions relative to the control by 12, 27, and 47%, respectively, and zeolite addition reduced cumulative NH and NO emissions by 36 and 20%, respectively. Total GHG emissions (as CO-equivalents) were reduced by up to 27% with the additions of reed straw and/or zeolite. Our results indicate that reed straw or zeolite can be recommended as amendments to reduce GHG emissions from duck manure; however, superphosphate is more effective in reducing NH emissions.     

Exploring policy strategies for mitigating HFC emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning

The growing demand for cooling throughout the world, possibly increased by global climate change, requires the implementation of policies to mitigate the related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from energy and refrigerant use in the refrigeration and air conditioning (RAC) sector. This article aims to contribute to the discussion on strategies to reduce HFC emissions from RAC by looking at their different temporal effects, caused by stock-flow dynamics. From scenario modeling, we find that containment strategies are often most effective in reducing HFC emissions in the short run, whereas phase out strategies have more potential in the long run. Further findings suggest that early and quick implementation of phase out strategies could lead to important reductions in cumulative HFC emissions, because stock build up is prevented. This timing effect is less pronounced for containment strategies. Lastly, emissions from disposal, if unabated, can lead to equally large emissions annually as those from use. Preference for several short-term benefits of containment strategies might lead to sub optimal emission reduction strategies, endangering long term GHG emission reduction.     

Nitrogen oxide and methane emissions under varying tillage and fertilizer management

Comprehensive assessment of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) budget of reduced tillage agricultural systems must consider emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4), each of which have higher global warming potentials than carbon dioxide (CO2). Tillage intensity may also impact nitric oxide (NO) emissions, which can have various environmental and agronomic impacts. In 2003 and 2004, we used chambers to measure N2O, CH4, and NO fluxes from plots that had been managed under differing tillage intensity since 1991. The effect of tillage on non-CO2 GHG emissions varied, in both magnitude and direction, depending on fertilizer practices. Emissions of N2O following broadcast urea (BU) application were higher under no till (NT) and conservation tillage (CsT) compared to conventional tillage (CT). In contrast, following anhydrous ammonia (AA) injection, N2O emissions were higher under CT and CsT compared to NT. Emissions following surface urea ammonium nitrate (UAN) application did not vary with tillage. Total growing season non-CO2 GHG emissions were equivalent to CO2 emissions of 0.15 to 1.9 Mg CO2 ha(-1) yr(-1) or 0.04 to 0.53 Mg soil-C ha(-1) yr(-1). Emissions of N2O from AA-amended plots were two to four times greater than UAN- and BU-amended plots. Total NO + N2O losses in the UAN treatment were approximately 50% lower than AA and BU. This study demonstrates that N2O emissions can represent a substantial component of the total GHG budget of reduced tillage systems, and that interactions between fertilizer and tillage practices can be important in controlling non-CO2 GHG emissions.     

温室气体自愿性减排市场现状及其在中国的前景

自愿性减排（Voluntary emission reduction,VER）是指完全出于自愿的、相关法律没有要求或者超过法律要求的温室气体或者大气污染物的减排行为,是近年来最重要的温室气体减排的新兴形式之一。本文概述了自愿性减排与自愿性碳市场（Voluntary carbon markets）的特征,从目前国际上自愿碳市场的交易变化、采用标准、登记与交易等方面总结了自愿性碳交易演变趋势,探讨了我国自愿碳市场发展中存在的问题和前景,并提出了相应建议。     

Carbon, nitrogen balances and greenhouse gas emission during cattle feedlot manure composting

Carbon and N losses reduce the agronomic value of compost and contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study investigated GHG emissions during composting of straw-bedded manure (SBM) and wood chip-bedded manure (WBM). For SBM, dry matter (DM) loss was 301 kg Mg(-1), total carbon (TC) loss was 174 kg Mg(-1), and total nitrogen (TN) loss was 8.3 kg Mg(-1). These correspond to 30.1% of initial DM, 52.8% of initial TC, and 41.6% of initial TN. For WBM, DM loss was 268 kg Mg(-1), TC loss was 154 kg Mg(-1), and TN loss was 1.40 kg Mg(-1), corresponding to 26.5, 34.5, and 11.8% of initial amounts. Most C was lost as CO2 with CH4 accounting for <6%. However, the net contribution to greenhouse gas emissions was greater for CH4 since it is 21 times more effective at trapping heat than CO2. Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions were 0.077 kg N Mg(-1) for SBM and 0.084 kg N Mg(-1) for WBM, accounting for 1 to 6% of total N loss. Total GHG emissions as CO2-C equivalent were not significantly different between SBM (368.4 +/- 18.5 kg Mg(-1)) and WBM (349.2 +/- 24.3 kg Mg(-1)). However, emission of 368.4 kg C Mg(-1) (CO2-C equivalent) was greater than the initial TC content (330.5 kg Mg(-1)) of SBM, raising the question of the net benefits of composting on C sequestration. Further study is needed to evaluate the impact of composting on overall GHG emissions and C sequestration and to fully investigate livestock manure management options.     

Solid Waste Treatment as a High-Priority and Low- Cost Alternative for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation

The increased concern about environmental problems caused by inadequate waste management, as well as the concern about global warming, promotes actions toward a sustainable management of the organic fraction of the waste. Landfills, the most common means to dispose of municipal solid waste (MSW), lead to the conversion of the organic waste to biogas, containing about 50% methane, a very active greenhouse gas (GHG). One unit of methane has a global warming potential of 21 computed for a 100-year horizon or 56 computed for 20 years. The waste sector in Israel contributes 13% of total greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions for a time horizon of 100 years (for a time horizon of 20 years, the waste sector contribution equals to more than 25% of total GHG emissions). The ultimate goal is to minimize the amount of methane (CH₄) by converting it to CO₂. This can be achieved by physicochemical means (e.g., landfill gas flare, incineration) or by biological processes (e.g., composting, anaerobic digestion). Since the waste in Israel has a high organic material content, it was found that the most cost-effective means to treat the degradable organic components is by aerobic composting (investment of less than US$ 10 to reduce emission of one ton CO₂ equivalent per year). Another benefit of this technology is the ability to implement it within a short period. The suggested approach, which should be implemented especially in developing countries, could reduce a significant amount of GHG at relatively low cost and short time. The development of a national policy for proper waste treatment can be a significant means to abate GHG emissions in the short term, enabling a gain in time to develop other means for the long run. In addition, the use of CO₂ quotas will credit the waste sector and will promote profitable proper waste management.     

National policies for biosphere greenhouse gas management: issues and opportunities

Biosphere greenhouse gas (GHG) management consists of preserving and enhancing terrestrial carbon pools and producing biomass as a fossil fuel substitute. The discussion of this topic has focused primarily on carbon-accounting and project-level issues, particularly relating to carbon sequestration as a source of emissions credits under the Kyoto Protocol. While international consensus on these matters is needed, this paper argues that an important domestic policy agenda also deserves attention. National policies for biosphere GHG management are necessary to bring about large-scale changes in land-use, forestry, and agricultural practices and can address some of the technical and policy issues that have proven to be particularly problematic from carbon-accounting and project-level perspectives. These policies should minimize land-use and resource-management conflicts, account for collateral benefits, and ensure institutional compatibility with existing resource-management regimes. Issues relating to project permanence, leakage, and transaction costs should also be addressed. A range of policy instruments should be used and biosphere GHG management should be one component of an integrated approach to environmental and resource management. Countries promoting biosphere GHG management as an important element of their climate change strategies should be developing these domestic policies to complement international negotiations and to demonstrate that carbon sequestration and biomass production can make an effective contribution to the stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations.     

Mixed methodology to analyze the relationship between maturity of environmental management and the adoption of green supply chain management in Brazil

The aim of this research is to verify the relationship between the maturity levels of environmental management and the adoption of green supply chain management (GSCM) practices by electro-electronic companies in Brazil. In this work a two-phase research was conducted, with one quantitative and the other qualitative. The quantitative phase aimed to test whether a relationship between the maturity levels of environmental management and GSCM exists, while the qualitative phase tried to detail the characteristics of this relationship. The quantitative phase was conducted through a survey with 100 Brazilian electro-electronic companies and the collected data were processed using Structural Equation Modeling. For the qualitative phase, a multiple case study was conducted with three companies located in Brazil. The results indicate that: (1) The main hypothesis was confirmed and considered statistically valid, indicating that, indeed, the maturity level of environmental management influences the adoption of GSCM practices; (2) a coevolution tends to occur between the environmental maturity and the GSCM practices; that is, the more developed is the company's environmental management, more complex GSCM practices are adopted; and (3) the GSCM internal practices tend to present a greater relative adoption than the external practices; these external practices of GSCM tend to be adopted when the company is inserted in a higher environmental stage and/or operates under a scenario of stronger normative environmental pressure. By the way, this is the first research mixing survey and case studies on GSCM in Brazil.     

Role of behavioural factors in green supply chain management implementation in Indian mining industries

Green supply chain management (GSCM) integrates ecological concepts with those of supply chain management in order to minimize energy and material usage and to reduce adverse impacts of supply chain activities on the environment. GSCM implementation in mining industries depends largely upon certain factors which are influenced by human behaviours. Human behaviour is dynamic in nature and the relationships between them continuously evolve and change. In this ever-changing context, therefore, identifying and ranking the behavioural factors that affect GSCM implementation becomes essential. This can be taken as a reference by the decision makers while deciding the hierarchy of action necessary for effective implementation of green practices in mining supply chains. The present research attempts to explore various behavioural factors affecting GCSM practices and their interactions which help to attain green-enabled needs. Interpretive structural modelling (ISM) is employed in this research to extract the interrelationships among the identified behavioural factors.     

Avoided deforestation as a greenhouse gas mitigation tool: economic issues

Tropical deforestation is a significant contributor to accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. GHG emissions from deforestation in the tropics were in the range of 1 to 2 Pg C yr(-1) for the 1990s, which is equivalent to as much as 25% of global anthropogenic GHG emissions. While there is growing interest in providing incentives to avoid deforestation and consequently reduce net carbon emissions, there is limited information available on the potential costs of these activities. This paper uses a global forestry and land use model to analyze the potential marginal costs of reducing net carbon emissions by avoiding deforestation in tropical countries. Our estimates suggest that about 0.1 Pg C yr(-1) of emissions reductions could be obtained over the next 30 to 50 yr for $5 per Mg C, and about 1.6 Pg C yr(-1) could be obtained over the same time frame for $100 per Mg C. In addition, the effects of carbon incentives on land use could be substantial. Relative to projected baseline conditions, we find that there would be around 3 million additional hectares (ha) of forestland in 2055 at $5 per Mg C and 422 million ha at $100 per Mg C. Estimates of reductions in area deforested, GHG mitigation potential, and annual land rental payments required are presented, all of which vary by region, carbon price paid, and time frame of mitigation.     

Reduction of nitrate leaching with haying or grazing and omission of nitrogen fertilizer

In some high-fertility, high-stocking-density grazing systems, nitrate (NO(3)) leaching can be great, and ground water NO(3)-N concentrations can exceed maximum contaminant levels. To reduce high N leaching losses and concentrations, alternative management practices need to be used. At the North Appalachian Experimental Watershed near Coshocton, OH, two management practices were studied with regard to reducing NO(3)-N concentrations in ground water. This was following a fertilized, rotational grazing management practice from which ground water NO(3)-N concentrations exceeded maximum contaminant levels. Using four small watersheds (each approximately 1 ha), rotational grazing of a grass forage without N fertilizer being applied and unfertilized grass forage removed as hay were used as alternative management practices to the previous fertilized pastures. Ground water was sampled at spring developments, which drained the watershed areas, over a 7-yr period. Peak ground water NO(3)-N concentrations before the 7-yr study period ranged from 13 to 25.5 mg L(-1). Ground water NO(3)-N concentrations progressively decreased under each watershed and both management practices. Following five years of the alternative management practices, ground water NO(3)-N concentrations ranged from 2.1 to 3.9 mg L(-1). Both grazing and haying, without N fertilizer being applied to the forage, were similarly effective in reducing the NO(3)-N levels in ground water. This research shows two management practices that can be effective in reducing high NO(3)-N concentrations resulting from high-fertility, high-stocking-density grazing systems, including an option to continue grazing.     

Environmental impact evaluation of feeds prepared from food residues using life cycle assessment

There is increasing concern about feeds prepared from food residues (FFR) from an environmental viewpoint; however, various forms of energy are consumed in the production of FFR. Environmental impacts of three scenarios were therefore investigated and compared using life cycle assessment (LCA): production of liquid FFR by sterilization with heat (LQ), production of dehydrated FFR by dehydration (DH), and disposal of food residues by incineration (IC). The functional unit was defined as 1 kg dry matter of produced feed standardized to a fixed energy content. The system boundaries included collection of food residues and production of feed from food residues. In IC, food residues are incinerated as waste, and thus the impacts of production and transportation of commercial concentrate feeds equivalent to the FFR in the other scenarios are included in the analysis. Our results suggested that the average amounts of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from LQ, DH, and IC were 268, 1073, and 1066 g of CO(2) equivalent, respectively. The amount of GHG emissions from LQ was remarkably small, indicating that LQ was effective for reducing the environmental impact of animal production. Although the average amount of GHG emissions from DH was nearly equal to that from IC, a large variation of GHG emissions was observed among the DH units. The energy consumption of the three scenarios followed a pattern similar to that of GHG emissions. The water consumption of the FFR-producing units was remarkably smaller than that of IC due to the large volumes of water consumed in forage crop production.