The illegal trading of high unit value minerals in developing countries

Attracted by the high unit value and low barriers to entry in terms of capital requirements, technology, infrastructure, minimum reserves and implementation time, the artisanal and small-scale mining of high unit value minerals, such as gemstones, diamonds and gold, has grown to significant proportions in developing countries. This is manifested by the value of output and large numbers of miners engaged in this activity. Despite the expansion of the subsector, its national economic role in many developing countries has largely been disappointing, primarily due to high levels of illegal trading activity. The objectives of this paper are to identify major factors responsible for the declaration problem. The economic impact of such activities is pointed out. To conclude the discussion, options are presented that provide a basis for eliminating illegal marketing practices and thereby strengthening the economic role of the subsector in meeting national development objectives of developing countries .     

Refinery deregulation in developing countries

For much of the 1980s refining has been unprofitable. The continued operation of small refineries in oil-importing developing countries has therefore come under intense scrutiny, especially by the international financial institutions concerned with high levels of external debt. This paper examines the specific case of Morocco. Even though refining may be unprofitable at the world's export refineries, refining may still be part of the least-cost solution to meeting developing country petroleum demands as a result of transport differentials. Unlike some other refineries in Africa, those of Morocco are well run, and closure is unwarranted. Rather the need is for regulatory and pricing reform, such that refiners can respond more flexibly to changes in world markets.     

Management of environment in developing countries

Summary Environmental problems in developing countries partly arise out of lack of development, hence they are intricately linked to the socio-economic conditions. Environmental awareness and environmental education are critical under these conditions but these are time consuming and slow solutions. Integration of economic and environmental plans for various regions have to be attempted systematically. Time is running out, and unless comprehensive steps are taken up some of the capital assets (such as forests, fresh water, soils, etc.) are likely to be irretrievably damaged.Dr B. Bowonder was, until recently, Chairman of the Centre for Energy, Environment and Technology at the Administrative Staff College, Hyderabad. He recently joined this Journal's Advisory Board and his analysis of the Bhopal Incident (The Environmentalist, 5 (2) 89–103) created considerable interest. He is currently a member of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific.     

Electric load management in developing countries

Energy planners in developing countries have traditionally sought to meet their nations' growing electricity demands by adding more generation and transmission capacity. But as the foreign investment situation became critical in the 1980s, private investment and system efficiency improvement programmes began to garner interest. One of the most promising system efficiency improvement options is load management, which uses a variety of techniques to utilize the electricity system's existing capacity more efficiently. However, to date, only three countries have seriously considered implementing large load management programmes: Pakistan, Peru and Costa Rica. This paper describes a 1987-89 load control demonstration programme in Costa Rica, sponsored by the US Agency for International Development (AID), in which participating industries were able to reduce their peak demand by 14%.     

Sustainable forestry management in developing countries

The central message of this paper is that natural forests have multiple uses and multiple users. The paper describes the crisis in Asian forestry and four failures which lie behind the crisis. The first failure is related to economic policy which has consistently underpriced timber, not accounting for the true cost of replacing the felled trees or the value of non-timber goods and services (including environmental services). The second failure stems from the lack of community involvement in managing forests. The third failure is that of forestry institutions which have not been able to adapt to changes required to meet new challenges — away from timber extraction towards environmental services and social forestry. The fourth failure arises from technological constraints, including difficulties in carrying out long-term research (to cover the 20–40 year time horizon in the forestry sector) and ineffective application of research results. A number of specific suggestions for moving toward sustained yield management in Asia are presented. The sustainable management of forests in Asia is crucial not only for indigenous peoples, the environment and economies of the countries of Asia, but also for the biodiversity and health of the global environment.     

The contribution of energy efficiency to sustainable development in developing countries

The demand for energy services is growing rapidly in developing countries. Low levels of energy efficiency in electric power supply and in energy use mean that the energy sector threatens to absorb an intolerably high share of available financial resources. Energy inefficiency also contributes to local and global environmental problems. A strategy of vigorously improving energy efficiency is thus a key element of a sustainable development path. Results reported in this paper show that there is considerable room for efficiency improvement in both existing and new capital stocks, but a much larger effort than presently underway is essential if the potential is to be realized. Assistance from the industrialized countries can play a major role in such an effort.     

Analysis of cooking energy in developing countries

Cooking is the major energy end use in most developing countries. A general model to calculate energy-use cost for cooking with 15 combinations of fuel and end use device based on prevailing market conditions is proposed by this paper. The model has been implemented to develop an independent computer software which ranks the combinations on the basis of least cost. The model reflects cooking energy consumption patterns in urban Nepal, where it was tested. The results suggest that biomass energy used in efficient stoves is the most attractive option for cooking in Nepal. Hence, a policy for effective use of biomass is necessary .     

EIA — Its potential application to appropriate technology in developing countries

Summary Many developed countries in the Western world employ some form of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). A number of sophisticated procedures are used for the assessment of the impact of large- scale developments upon the environment. In developing countries there are both large-scale schemes that are often financed by foreign aid, and small-scale projects in which technology is less sophisticated but more appropriate to human needs. Standard EIA procedures are followed for large-scale developments but assessment of the impact of small-scale projects is often ignored.This paper attempts to define appropriate technology and to describe some of the often less apparent adverse effects of such technology upon society and the environment. The need for assessment of small-scale projects is established and the possibility of applying current EIA procedures to such developments is considered. The final paragraphs refer to the advantages and disadvantages of environmental impact assessment of small-scale technology.Dr Pamela M. Goode and Alastair I. Johnstone are both members of staff at the Environmental Institute, University of Salford, UK.     

The pricing of water services in developing countries

This paper focuses on improving efficiency in the water and sewerage sectors through long-run marginal cost pricing, adjusted for financial needs, externalities, second best considerations, lifeline tariffs and cross subsidization within an integrated water resource planning (IWRP) framework. Supply efficiency suggests that for a given price structure, an optimal long-run investment plan and a corresponding level of supply quality should be determined which maximizes net social benefits. Supply efficiency also requires efficient operation of the water system, including optimization of losses.     

Issues in natural resources management in developing countries

Recognizing the steady depletion of natural resources in developing countries, this study analyses its causes by focusing on the ownership of such resources. Resource degradation was found associated with an array of individual, socioeconomic, politicoeconomic and institutional factors. In the pursuit of sustainable regional resources management and conservation, it is necessary to analyse and incorporate these multifarious factors into the design of a comprehensive strategy. While local government should be responsible for devising management strategies, their implementation requires the interfacing of field agencies with local communities that are to be assisted in the short term and instructed in depth; their performance should be closely monitored over the long term.     

Decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management: applicability in developing countries

Providing reliable and affordable wastewater treatment in rural areas is a challenge in many parts of the world, particularly in developing countries. The problems and limitations of the centralized approaches for wastewater treatment are progressively surfacing. Centralized wastewater collection and treatment systems are costly to build and operate, especially in areas with low population densities and dispersed households. Developing countries lack both the funding to construct centralized facilities and the technical expertise to manage and operate them. Alternatively, the decentralized approach for wastewater treatment which employs a combination of onsite and/or cluster systems is gaining more attention. Such an approach allows for flexibility in management, and simple as well as complex technologies are available. The decentralized system is not only a long-term solution for small communities but is more reliable and cost effective. This paper presents a review of the various decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management. A discussion as to their applicability in developing countries, primarily in rural areas, and challenges faced is emphasized all through the paper. While there are many impediments and challenges towards wastewater management in developing countries, these can be overcome by suitable planning and policy implementation. Understanding the receiving environment is crucial for technology selection and should be accomplished by conducting a comprehensive site evaluation process. Centralized management of the decentralized wastewater treatment systems is essential to ensure they are inspected and maintained regularly. Management strategies should be site specific accounting for social, cultural, environmental and economic conditions in the target area.     

Citizen funds and Dutch Disease in developing countries

Are Alaska-style citizen revenue distribution funds the solution to the resource curse in developing countries as their proponents conjecture? Unfortunately it appears not. First, it is questionable whether developing countries have the institutional capacity to implement and operate such funds successfully. Second, citizen funds are unlikely to have any substantial impact on governance and their macroeconomic effects are uncertain. Finally, as a comparative case study of the three natural resource-intensive economies that successfully steered clear of excessive real appreciation and crowding out of the non-minerals tradables sector—Botswana, Indonesia and Norway—shows, citizen funds are likely to carry detrimental indirect effects on the ability of governments to surmount the Dutch Disease.     

Water supply policies and issues in developing countries

The significant progress made during the UN International Water Decade is reviewed, eight years after its inception in 1981. Major issues remain, especially in rural areas. The advantages of an integrated water resource planning framework (IWRP) are explained, including the use of this process to develop a flexible strategy for the water and sewerage sector to meet national policy objectives. Economic efficiency in supply implies optimal service quality and least cost planning, while efficient pricing policy requires the implementation of long-run marginal cost based tariffs. Better sector organization, management, accountability, options for decentralization and innovative financing methods are also discussed.     

Moving toward economic-cum-environmental sustainability in Asian developing countries

Summary Environmental degradation in the Asian Pacific area developing countries continues and has probably increased since the Stockholm Conference of 1972. The causes for this continued environmental degradation in Asia are analyzed. The paper assesses the actions of the International Assistance Agencies in providing support for the Asian developing countries since Stockholm. The Asian Development Bank project on Economic Policies for Sustained Development is described, and advocated as an important first step in a strategy moving towards economic-cum-environmental sustainability. Drastic changes and bold initiatives are suggested and required to establish true sustainable development for the developing countries.Dr Harvey F. Ludwig is Chairman of SEATEC International Consulting Engineers. He is a regular contributor to this journal.     

United Nations mineral exploration activities in developing countries

The purpose of the United Nations' mineral exploration activities is to assist the developing countries in identifying, evaluating and developing their mineral resources as a means of stimulating their economic development. Since 1978, these programmes have been executed by the Natural Resources and Energy Division of the Department of Technical Co-operation for Development (DTCD) with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) providing the bulk of the financing. In the past 30 years, more than 450 projects in some 100 developing countries have been executed at a cost estimated at US$600 million. This input has contributed to the discovery of deposits valued at billions of dollars, many of which are now being mined.     

Assessing slope stability in unplanned settlements in developing countries

Unplanned housing in developing countries is often located on steep slopes. Frequently no building code is enforced for such housing and mains water is provided with no drainage provision. Both of these factors can be particularly significant in terms of landslide risk if, as is so often the case, such slopes lack any planned drainage provision. There is thus a need to develop a model that facilitates the assessment of slope stability in an holistic context, incorporating a wide range of factors (including surface cover, soil water topographic convergence, slope loading and point source water leakage) in order that appropriate advice can be given as to the general controls on slope stability in such circumstances. This paper outlines a model configured for this specific purpose and describes an application to a site in St. Lucia, West Indies, where there is active slope movement in an unplanned housing development on relatively steep topography. The model findings are in accord with the nature of the current failure at the site, provide guidance as to the significance of slope drainage and correspond to inferences drawn from an application of resistance envelope methods to the site. In being able to scenario test a uniquely wide range of combinations of factors, the model structure is shown to be highly valuable in assessing dominant slope stability process controls in such complex environments.     

An integrated approach to modeling resource utilization for rural communities in developing countries

Resource consumption in developing countries has been the focus of a considerable amount of research. What has been understudied however, has been the feedback affects of resource consumption on resource availability to both households and communities. Heavy reliance on natural resources and intensive smallholder agriculture common to many rural communities in developing countries has forced people to fulfill short-term needs to the detriment of long-term ecological and livelihood sustainability. This paper introduces a conceptual framework to examine how individuals and households fulfill daily caloric needs and the aggregate effects on resource availability and consumption. Data were collected from a large number of published case studies of rural land-use dynamics, growth and yield models, and human livelihoods were reviewed from scientific journals, reports published by NGOs, and government reports. Using inputs defined by the user, the model tracks annual fuelwood and agricultural land use based on meeting individual energy demands. A case-study-based analysis was patterned after smallholder agriculturalists at the family and community level. Three scenarios are presented in this paper using data from Uganda to illustrate the application of this model.