Technical- and Environmental-Efficiency Analysis of Irrigated Cotton-Cropping Systems in Punjab,Pakistan Using Data Envelopment Analysis

Cotton cropping in Pakistan uses substantial quantities of resources and adversely affects the environment with pollutants from the inputs, particularly pesticides. A question remains regarding to what extent the reduction of such environmental impact is possible without compromising the farmers’ income. This paper investigates the environmental, technical, and economic performances of selected irrigated cotton-cropping systems in Punjab to quantify the sustainability of cotton farming and reveal options for improvement. Using mostly primary data, our study quantifies the technical, cost, and environmental efficiencies of different farm sizes. A set of indicators has been computed to reflect these three domains of efficiency using the data envelopment analysis technique. The results indicate that farmers are broadly environmentally inefficient; which primarily results from poor technical inefficiency. Based on an improved input mix, the average potential environmental impact reduction for small, medium, and large farms is 9, 13, and 11 %, respectively, without compromising the economic return. Moreover, the differences in technical, cost, and environmental efficiencies between small and medium and small and large farm sizes were statistically significant. The second-stage regression analysis identifies that the entire farm size significantly affects the efficiencies, whereas exposure to extension and training has positive effects, and the sowing methods significantly affect the technical and environmental efficiencies. Paradoxically, the formal education level is determined to affect the efficiencies negatively. This paper discusses policy interventions that can improve the technical efficiency to ultimately increase the environmental efficiency and reduce the farmers’ operating costs.     

基于DEA-Malmquist指数的辽宁省城市建设用地配置效率研究

从提高城市建设用地配置效率角度出发,运用DEA-Malmquist指数模型,通过选择投入产出要素对辽宁省2006-2012年城市建设用地全要素生产率进行分析,对全省及各市城市建设用地配置效率的变化和技术效率、技术进步对城市建设用地配置效率的影响做出评价.研究表明,研究期内各城市全要素生产率处于小幅增长态势,平均增长率为1.1％,纯技术效率呈波动性增减,表明各城市尚未充分利用先进技术和资源优化配置,规模效率普遍偏低,平均值为0.996＜1,未向最优规模靠近,技术进步对全要素生产率变化指数的增长贡献率不高.     

Irrigation pricing policies and its impact on agricultural inputs demand in Tunisia: a DEA-based methodology

This paper estimates farmers' individual irrigation water demand functions employing the information hidden in individual farmers' technical efficiency. This information is extracted through the development of a new deductive methodology based on inverse Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) models. The empirical results for Tunisia show that farmers who are more technically efficient have less elastic irrigation water demand functions; these farmers would adjust demand only to a limited extent and they can afford the water price. In contrast, water pricing significantly affects those that are less efficient. These farmers shift towards a different cropping pattern using significantly less water and more land when the price of water increases. Thus, higher water prices would threaten this category's livelihood if their efficiency is not improved. However, if the technical efficiency of these farmers were to improve, then it would be more difficult to reach water saving objectives since their demand will also become highly inelastic. The findings have important implications in view of the objectives of Tunisia water policy which include:full cost recovery, continuity of the irrigation activity, and water saving at the national level.     

Impact of environmental production conditions on productivity and efficiency: a case study of wheat farmers in Bangladesh

Environmental conditions significantly affect production, but are often ignored in studies analysing productivity and efficiency leading to biased results. In this study, we examine the influence of selected environmental factors on productivity and efficiency in wheat farming in Bangladesh. Results reveal that environmental production conditions significantly affect the parameters of the production function and technical efficiency, as well as correlates of inefficiency. Controlling for environmental production conditions improves technical efficiency by 4 points (p<0.01) from 86% to 90%. Large farms are more efficient relative to small and medium sized farms (p<0.01 and 0.05), with no variation among regions. Policy implications include soil fertility improvement through soil conservation and crop rotation, improvement in managerial practices through extension services and adoption of modern technologies, promotion of education, strengthening the research-extension link, and development of new varieties that have higher yield potential and are also suitable for marginal areas.     

Governance of water supply systems in the Palestinian Territories: A data envelopment analysis approach to the management of water resources

This study demonstrates that data envelopment analysis (DEA) can be a useful tool to assess the relative efficiencies of water supply systems and to establish benchmarks with which to measure progress in the management of water resources. Frontier efficiency models measure the efficiency of water use in the Palestinian Territories (West Bank and the Gaza Strip). At the municipality level, sufficient data for the years 1999-2002 were available to estimate efficiency and stability scores. The Gaza Strip efficiency scores were considerably lower than those of the West Bank. Water losses were the major source of the inefficiency as indicated by the large slacks of this input. The relative sizes of the municipalities affect efficiency scores little. Palestinian policy makers should focus on rebuilding the infrastructure of the water networks, beginning with the most DEA inefficient municipalities in order to minimize water losses.     

Performance assessment for municipal solid waste collection in Taiwan

Collecting municipal solid waste (MSW) is a major and expensive task for local waste management authorities, thus efficient MSW collection is a necessity. This study presents a procedure for developing an aggregate indicator (AI) to assess MSW collection efficiency based on multiple factors. The applicabilities of various key performance indicators (KPIs) are evaluated based on five selection criteria, and five KPIs are chosen to form the AI. The relative efficiencies of local MSW collection services are analyzed by the data envelopment analysis (DEA) method. A set of common weights for all five KPIs is then generated based on DEA results and four selection rules by modifying a previous approach. Finally, the proposed AI is applied to assess the MSW collection services provided by 307 local governments in Taiwan, and associated results are compared and discussed.     

Are Small-Scale Irrigators Water Use Efficient? Evidence from Lake Naivasha Basin, Kenya

With increasing water scarcity and competing uses and users, water use efficiency is becoming increasingly important in many parts of developing countries. The lake Naivasha basin has an array of different water users and uses ranging from large scale export market agriculture, urban domestic water users to small holder farmers. The small scale farmers are located in the upper catchment areas and form the bulk of the users in terms of area and population. This study used farm household data to explore the overall technical efficiency, irrigation water use efficiency and establish the factors influencing water use efficiency among small scale farmers in the Lake Naivasha basin in Kenya. Data envelopment analysis, general algebraic and modeling system, and Tobit regression methods were used in analyzing cross sectional data from a sample of 201 small scale irrigation farmers in the lake Naivasha basin. The results showed that on average, the farmers achieved only 63 % technical efficiency and 31 % water use efficiency. This revealed that substantial inefficiencies occurred in farming operations among the sampled farmers. To improve water use efficiency, the study recommends that more emphasis be put on orienting farmers toward appropriate choice of irrigation technologies, appropriate choice of crop combinations in their farms, and the attainment of desirable levels of farm fragmentation.     

Efficiency evaluation for regional urban water use and wastewater decontamination systems in China: A DEA approach

Rapid economic growth and urbanization in China have resulted in great water consumption in recent years. China has been facing increasingly severe water shortage crisis, especially in urban areas. This paper focuses on performance analysis for regional urban water use and wastewater decontamination systems in China. To this end, a DEA-based approach is developed. In the proposed approach, the efficiency of the system is decomposed into water use efficiency and wastewater decontamination efficiency. In the wastewater decontamination sub-system, the purified wastewater (reusable water) is treated as a desirable output; while in the water use sub-system, it is incorporated as a fixed input, which cannot be decreased in the process of efficiency optimization. The efficiency of the system is defined as the average of the two sub-systems’ efficiencies. The proposed approach can find inefficiencies caused by the internal factors between sub-systems, which cannot be identified using the traditional DEA approaches. We finally apply the proposed approach to analyze the efficiencies of regional urban water use and wastewater decontamination systems in China. Based on the application results, some findings and implications for efficiency improvement of urban water management in China are achieved.     

The relationship between milk production and farm-gate nitrogen surplus for the Waikato region, New Zealand

As the scope and scale of New Zealand (NZ) dairy farming increases, farmers and the industry are being challenged by Government and the New Zealand public to address growing environmental concerns. Dairying has come under increasing scrutiny from local authorities tasked with sustainable resource management. Despite recent efforts of farmers and industry to improve resource use efficiency, there is increasing likelihood of further regulatory constraints on water use and nutrient management. This study uses available data on farm-gate nitrogen (N) surpluses and milk production from the Waikato, New Zealand's largest dairying region, together with a farm scale modeling exercise, to provide a perspective on the current situation compared to dairy farms in Europe. It also aims to provide relevant guidelines for N surpluses and efficiencies under NZ conditions. Waikato dairy farms compare favorably with farms in Europe in terms of N use efficiency expressed as L milk/kg farm-gate N surplus. Achievable and realistic good practice objectives for Waikato dairy farmers could be 15,000 L milk/ha (1200 kg milk fat plus protein/ha) with a farm-gate N surplus of 100 kg/ha giving an eco-efficiency (L milk/kg N surplus) of 150, and long-term average nitrate leaching losses of approximately 25-30 kg/ha/yr. This can be achieved by increasing the N conversion efficiency through lower replacement rates (16 versus 22%), lower stocked (< 3 cows/ha) high genetic merit cows (30 L milk/day at peak) milked for longer (277 versus 240 days), feeding effluent-irrigated, home-grown, low-protein supplements to cows on high-protein, grass-clover pastures to dilute N concentration in the diet, removing some of the urinary N from the paddocks during critical times by standing cows on a loafing pad for part of the day, and through lower N fertilizer rates (50-70 kg/ha/yr compared to the norm of 170-200 kg/ha/yr) and using a nitrification inhibitor and gibberellins to boost pasture growth and the former to reduce N leaching.     

Farmer Premiums for the Voluntary Adoption of Conservation Plans

Programs that reimburse farmers for the cost of implementing more environmentally benign management practices are becoming increasingly popular in both the US and the EU. Utilizing the random utility and random profit difference approaches, the paper develops a theoretical model that explains why farmers may require a premium in excess of the decrease in profits to adopt a conservation plan, and may even require a premium in the case where adoption of the plan is associated with a mean increase in profits. This premium is estimated using a survey of farmers in conjunction with predictions of changes in production costs.     

基于DEA的煤炭企业效率评价

运用DEA方法对我国23家煤炭企业的技术效率、纯技术效率和规模效率进行了分析评价。经过对DEA的结果进行分析发现,我国煤炭企业普遍存在技术效率低、纯技术效率水平低而规模效率水平较高、生产集中度与技术效率相对较低。以DEA所得到的结果为基础,对我国煤炭企业存在的问题进行了分析,并提出了建议。     

Are 'other gainful activities' on farms good for the environment?

There has been a lot of academic interest in the pursuit of diversification activities and off-farm employment by farm household members. This is regarded as an important strategy for mitigating the effects of low agricultural income. One aspect of the debate about these so-called 'Other Gainful Activities' (OGAs) is whether they are associated with any environmental improvement on farms. In this paper, we use three approaches to analyse this issue. We examine whether measures of agricultural intensity are associated with the pursuit of OGAs by farmers and their spouses. We examine whether OGAs are more likely on farms where there is an ESA Management Agreement. Finally, we examine whether OGAs are associated with the farmer's stated environmental intentions. Although we tentatively conclude that there is a relationship between OGA involvement and these measures of environmental performance or concern by farmers, the magnitude of the association is small relative to other variables such as farm size, the type of land use, the form of business and recent agricultural training.     

Assessing farming eco-efficiency: a Data Envelopment Analysis approach

This paper assesses farming eco-efficiency using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) techniques. Eco-efficiency scores at both farm and environmental pressure-specific levels are computed for a sample of Spanish farmers operating in the rain-fed agricultural system of Campos County. The determinants of eco-efficiency are then studied using truncated regression and bootstrapping techniques. We contribute to previous literature in this field of research by including information on slacks in the assessment of the potential environmental pressure reductions in a DEA framework. Our results reveal that farmers are quite eco-inefficient, with very few differences emerging among specific environmental pressures. Moreover, eco-inefficiency is closely related to technical inefficiencies in the management of inputs. Regarding the determinants of eco-efficiency, farmers benefiting from agri-environmental programs as well as those with university education are found to be more eco-efficient. Concerning the policy implications of these results, public expenditure in agricultural extension and farmer training could be of some help to promote integration between farming and the environment. Furthermore, Common Agricultural Policy agri-environmental programs are an effective policy to improve eco-efficiency, although some doubts arise regarding their cost-benefit balance.     

On the choice of farm management practices after the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy in 2003

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was fundamentally reformed in 2003. From 2005, farmers will receive decoupled income support payments instead of production premiums if basic standards for environment, food safety, animal health and welfare are met. Farmers are likely to adjust production and management practices to the new policy framework. We describe how this reform fits into the EU strategy of making agricultural production more environmentally friendly by concentrating on the financial aspects of the reforms. Using an agricultural sector model for Austria, we show that the reform will further decrease agricultural outputs, reduce farm inputs, lessen nitrogen surpluses and make environmentally friendly management practices more attractive for farmers.     

镁法烟气脱硫在催化裂化装置中的应用

针对国内首家采用镁法烟气脱硫技术的炼油厂催化裂化装置,对其烟气脱硫项目的工艺技术、运行参数及脱硫效果、装置运行成本及长周期运行的社会效益以及在运行过程中遇到的问题和采取的技术改进等方面做出综合介绍和评价。该装置在运行过程中很好的控制了各个关键参数,并解决了多项操作难题,对改善当地大气环境质量有利,社会效益显著。     

Effects of conservation tillage on the performance of Lake Erie basin farms

This paper summarizes research that investigates the effects of alternative farming practices on the performance of Lake Erie basin farms. First, data from a representative panel of about 100 farmers is analyzed to determine how conservation tillage, rotations, and other factors affected farms' economic returns during 1987-1992. Statistical analysis of these data is unable to demonstrate that there is any significant relationship between farming system (i.e., tillage and rotation) variables and farm profitability. Next, a farm-level bioeconomic simulation model is used to analyze the effects of conservation tillage adoption on farm profitability, farm size, and pollutant emissions. Findings are that tillage system, farm size, and crop selection are determined jointly and may substantially improve economic performance of farms. Conservation tillage enables farms to be larger and more specialized, and as a result, farm profitability improves. Statistical analysis of farm panel data is unable to show the effect of tillage on profitability because it neglects to account for endogeneity of variables (or joint effects of tillage, size, crop selection, and performance) in production decisions.     

An affordable green energy source—Evolving through current developments of organic,dye sensitized,and perovskite solar cells

Intensive R&D efforts made in solar photovoltaic area has enabled Si, GaAs, CdTe, and CIGS devices exhibiting nearly ideal efficiencies. However, cost incurred per unit energy does not allow them to qualify for alternate energy source besides environmental issues at production floors. Consequently, search is still continuing not only to reduce cost by improved efficiency, reduced materials cost, and simplified processing resulting in a cleaner and greener technology. Current successes in organic, dye-sensitized, and perovskite solar cells with efficiencies in 10–15% range raise concrete hope for evolving a low cost and green technology involving solution processable organic/inorganic compounds extendable to roll-to-roll production. The current status and future prospects of these three promising routes are reviewed here highlighting the possibility of an emerging alternate green energy source to supplement the conventional ones at commercial level.     

The multifunctionality of urban farming: perceived benefits for neighbourhood improvement

Urban farming – a type of urban agriculture focused on entrepreneurial food production – serves multiple functions in neighbourhoods; yet these are not well delineated. Expectations for urban farming often centre on traditional measures of economic development, potentially overlooking other benefits. Through a qualitative case study conducted in Baltimore, Maryland, we sought to understand community perceptions regarding the ways in which urban farms can benefit cities. Interviews with residents, neighbourhood leaders, and urban farmers in three residential neighbourhoods with urban farms revealed the pathways by which community members view farms as improving neighbourhoods. Benefits stemmed from four primary changes urban farms made to study neighbourhoods: creation of public projects welcoming involvement, physical improvement of degraded space, production of local food, and creation of new businesses. These changes led to multiple perceived benefits including increased social connectedness, a transformed physical landscape, improved neighbourhood reputation, increased access to fresh produce, and educational, youth development, and employment opportunities. Our findings demonstrate the importance of a multifunctional paradigm that accounts for social and educational functions in assessing the value of urban farming and bring empirical evidence to the concept of multifunctional agriculture. Urban farms with strong social aims may appear to contribute little to economic development if measured using traditional indicators of success such as job creation or fiscal impacts, but provide numerous other benefits for community development.     

Waste recovery using packaging waste recovery notes: a cost-effective way of meeting targets?

To comply with EU recycling targets for packaging waste, the UK relies on an industry run and market based eco-tax levied by reprocessors on obligated businesses. After examining the details of this approach, the use of Packaging Waste Recovery Notes is assessed in terms of its allocative impact and the contribution made to eco-efficiency. The evidence indicates the UK system has minimized the cost of delivering current EU targets, but has not been able to deliver allocative efficiency or to demonstrate dynamic improvements in resource use. Its effectiveness in meeting impending higher targets remains open to question.