Hospital solid waste management practices in Limpopo Province, South Africa: a case study of two hospitals

The shortcomings in the management practices of hospital solid waste in Limpopo Province of South Africa were studied by looking at two hospitals as case studies. Apart from field surveys, the generated hospital waste was weighed to compute the generation rates and was followed through various management practices to the final disposal. The findings revealed a major policy implementation gap between the national government and the hospitals. While modern practices such as landfill and incineration are used, their daily operations were not carried according to minimum standards. Incinerator ash is openly dumped and wastes are burned on landfills instead of being covered with soil. The incinerators used are also not environmentally friendly as they use old technology. The findings further revealed that there is no proper separation of wastes according to their classification as demanded by the national government. The mean percentage composition of the waste was found in the following decreasing order: general waste (60.74%)>medical waste (30.32%)>sharps (8.94%). The mean generation rates were found to be 0.60kg per patient per day.     

Planning for future waste management operations in developing countries

The proper management of waste has several aspects: political, social, environmental, economic and technical. While the objectives of waste management policy differ little from country to country, the methods used to achieve them must be adapted to the prevailing circumstances in each. These factors include the availability of technical, economic, and human resources, and the competition that exists for them from other demands of national policy, especially in developing countries.There is no single correct method to achieve proper waste management. Nevertheless there are common needs that must be addressed by all nations that wish to manage their wastes better. These needs will include: adequate knowledge of the types of waste to be disposed of, how much there is, where it arises, who produces it, and what happens to it. It is also necessary to forecast how the present circumstances will change, and to identify appropriate methods to ensure that what should be done with waste is done. As forecasting the nature and quantity of waste that will arise in the future is difficult, an administrative mechanism is needed to ensure the regular supply of up-to-date data.In any city it is possible to equate the standard of waste management with the overall “standard of living” enjoyed by its inhabitants. Rising expectations of environmental improvement mean that disposal facilities must be appropriately designed, engineered and managed. They must also be planned for the future. The preparation of a thorough and effective plan is a lengthy task if done manually, and the discussion introduces the benefits that can be obtained from the use of computer models to assist, but not replace, human involvement in the preparation of a plan. Brief reference will be made to waste management models already used by waste managers to produce and update plans.     

GHG emission factors developed for the recycling and composting of municipal waste in South African municipalities

GHG (greenhouse gas) emission factors for waste management are increasingly used, but such factors are very scarce for developing countries. This paper shows how such factors have been developed for the recycling of glass, metals (Al and Fe), plastics and paper from municipal solid waste, as well as for the composting of garden refuse in South Africa. The emission factors developed for the different recyclables in the country show savings varying from ?290 kg CO₂ e (glass) to ?19 111 kg CO₂ e (metals – Al) per tonne of recyclable. They also show that there is variability, with energy intensive materials like metals having higher GHG savings in South Africa as compared to other countries. This underlines the interrelation of the waste management system of a country/region with other systems, in particular with energy generation, which in South Africa, is heavily reliant on coal. This study also shows that composting of garden waste is a net GHG emitter, releasing 172 and 186 kg CO₂ e per tonne of wet garden waste for aerated dome composting and turned windrow composting, respectively. The paper concludes that these emission factors are facilitating GHG emissions modelling for waste management in South Africa and enabling local municipalities to identify best practice in this regard.     

Healthcare waste management in Algeria and Mostaganem department

Algeria as other developing countries faces an array of challenges for healthcare waste management. The management of healthcare waste is of major importance due to its public health risks and potential environmental hazards. Many efforts have been made by the government authorities in order to better manage the waste from healthcare facilities. However most healthcare facilities do not comply with the principles stated in Algerian legislation. A data study was made on 95 hospitals across the country, and the three health sectors of Mostaganem department (Mostaganem, Ain Tédles, and Sidi Ali) were surveyed. The yearly production of infectious healthcare waste in this Algerian department is estimated at 92 tons, which is 1.38% of the national waste production. This represents an average of 0.15 kg/bed/day, which is lower than the national value of 0.72 kg/bed/day. The total healthcare waste by sector ranges from 0.7 to 1.22 kg/bed/day, and healthcare waste comprises 16% of total waste, which is equal to the national percentage.     

Hazardous and solid waste issues in Europe and related who activities

The overall goal of WHO is to co-operate with its Member States, and provide them with assistance on demand or as needed. Towards this end, the WHO Regional Office for Europe has implemented, over many years, programme activities related to the management of municipal and industrial solid waste, sewage sludge, hazardous waste, waste from hospitals and other health care facilities, and radioactive waste. The published results of the various activities include conclusions and recommendations addressed to national public and environmental health authorities and to the scientific and professional community, as a whole.In more specific terms, work has been completed in recent years on the impact on health from microbes and chemicals in sewage sludge applied to land, and from emissions of dioxin, furan, PAH and heavy metal compounds from municipal waste incinerators. Policy guidelines and a code of practice for the management of hazardous waste, prepared together with the United Nations Environment Programme UNEP, were published in six languages, including Chinese. At present, the emphasis is shifting to hazardous waste, and a study is under way on the health impact of hazardous waste containing certain identified “priority chemicals”. A code of practice is currently being used in work for the site selection for hazardous waste facilities, including landfills. There is also a plan for the training of national trainees in the sound management of hazardous waste. WHO/HQ, together with UNEP and the World Bank, are completing a text on the management of hazardous waste in developing countries. The first two volumes are expected to be published in 1988. A third volume with a number of national case studies is also being prepared. To assist WHO in its tasks, increase the effectiveness of results, and avoid duplication of activities, co-operation is being maintained with various individual experts, national institutes and authorities, and other international governmental and non-governmental organizations. Co-ordination of work and exchange of information is a matter of routine by means of periodic interagency consultations, participation in meetings of other organizations and country visits.     

Greenhouse gases accounting and reporting for waste management – A South African perspective

This paper investigates how greenhouse gases are accounted and reported in the waste sector in South Africa. Developing countries (including South Africa) do not have binding emission reduction targets, but many of them publish different greenhouse gas emissions data which have been accounted and reported in different ways. Results show that for South Africa, inventories at national and municipal level are the most important tools in the process of accounting and reporting greenhouse gases from waste. For the development of these inventories international initiatives were important catalysts at national and municipal levels, and assisted in developing local expertise, resulting in increased output quality. However, discrepancies in the methodology used to account greenhouse gases from waste between inventories still remain a concern. This is a challenging issue for developing countries, especially African ones, since higher accuracy methods are more data intensive. Analysis of the South African inventories shows that results from the recent inventories can not be compared with older ones due to the use of different accounting methodologies. More recently the use of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) procedures in Africa, geared towards direct measurements of greenhouse gases from landfill sites, has increased and resulted in an improvement of the quality of greenhouse gas inventories at municipal level.     

Veterinary waste disposal: practice and policy in Durban, South Africa (2001-2003)

In South Africa, until recently, veterinary waste has not been included in definitions of health care waste, and so has been neglected as a contributor to the hazardous waste stream. Despite the application of, for example, the "Polluter Pays" principle in South African environmental legislation, to generators of waste, which would include veterinarians, there appears to be little awareness of and even less enforcement of the legislation in this regard. This paper reports on a 2001-2003 survey of management practices of the five waste contractors servicing just over half of the veterinarians in Durban, South Africa's second largest city. Some of their activities, when evaluated in terms of the legislation, guidelines and policies relating to waste handling and disposal, were found to be non-compliant. Since any discussion on waste management should take cognisance of waste from generation to final disposal, the responsibility of veterinarians as waste generators is also discussed in the light of the recent developments in health care waste management in South Africa. This study presents a review of past and current policies, legislation and guidelines that have application to veterinary waste. This is the first study to address veterinary waste disposal in any South African city.     

Solid waste management in Abuja, Nigeria

The new city of Abuja provided an opportunity to avoid some of the environmental problems associated with other major cities in Africa. The current status of solid waste management in Abuja has been reviewed and recommendations for improvements are made. The existing solid waste management system is affected by unfavourable economic, institutional, legislative, technical and operational constraints. A reliable waste collection service is needed and waste collection vehicles need to be appropriate to local conditions. More vehicles are required to cope with increasing waste generation. Wastes need to be sorted at source as much as possible, to reduce the amount requiring disposal. Co-operation among communities, the informal sector, the formal waste collectors and the authorities is necessary if recycling rates are to increase. Markets for recycled materials need to be encouraged. Despite recent improvements in the operation of the existing dumpsite, a properly sited engineered landfill should be constructed with operation contracted to the private sector. Wastes dumped along roads, underneath bridges, in culverts and in drainage channels need to be cleared. Small-scale waste composting plants could promote employment, income generation and poverty alleviation. Enforcement of waste management legislation and a proper policy and planning framework for waste management are required. Unauthorized use of land must be controlled by enforcing relevant clauses in development guidelines. Accurate population data is necessary so that waste management systems and infrastructure can be properly planned. Funding and affordability remain major constraints and challenges.     

Analysis of potential for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases in municipal solid waste in Brazil,in the state and city of Rio de Janeiro

This paper examines potential changes in solid waste policies for the reduction in GHG for the country of Brazil and one of its major states and cities, Rio de Janeiro, from 2005 to 2030. To examine these policy options, trends in solid waste quantities and associated GHG emissions are derived. Three alternative policy scenarios are evaluated in terms of effectiveness, technology, and economics and conclusions posited regarding optimal strategies for Brazil to implement. These scenarios are been building on the guidelines for national inventories of GHG emissions (IPCC, 2006) and adapted to Brazilian states and municipalities’ boundaries. Based on the results, it is possible to say that the potential revenue from products of solid waste management is more than sufficient to transform the current scenario in this country into one of financial and environmental gains, where the negative impacts of climate change have created a huge opportunity to expand infrastructure for waste management.     

Using research-based knowledge to underpin waste and resources policy.

The concept of a knowledge-based approach to policy making (also referred to as 'evidence-based policy making' or 'science meets policy') has been around for 10 years, and is widely 'signed up to' by Governments. This paper examines the theory and the practice at national government (using the UK as a case study) and European levels, looking at how the knowledge-based approach has been applied in waste and resources management. There is general agreement that a knowledge-(or evidence-) based approach to policy making is a 'good thing'; however putting the concept into practice has proven challenging and is still evolving. The linkages between researchers and policy makers need to be further strengthened, as does the 'demand' for evidence from policy; requiring policy specialists to articulate their requirements for evidence sufficiently well in advance, and to do so routinely, is still an area of weakness. Using a model developed by the UK's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), we examine in detail some of the implications of changing the question from 'is this good research on waste and resources issues?' to 'is this good evidence for waste and resources policy?'. The paper also provides recommendations for further work required to achieve this at a European level, and for priority areas where international co-ordination of waste and resources research could add most value to policy.     

Techno-economic assessment of municipal solid waste management in Jordan

Mismanagement of solid waste leads to public health risks, adverse environmental impacts and other socio-economic problems. This is obvious in many developing countries around the world. Currently, several countries have realized that the way they manage their solid wastes does not satisfy the objectives of sustainable development. Therefore, these countries, including Jordan, which forms the case study presented here, have decided to move away from traditional solid waste management (SWM) options to more integrated solid waste management approaches. Unfortunately, in many developing countries like Jordan, the lack of adequate resources to implement the necessary changes is posing a serious obstacle. The present paper discusses the various practices and challenges of solid waste management in Jordan from both a technical and economic perspective. An overview of the current practices and their environmental implications in three major cities of the country, which generate more than 70% of the country's solid waste, is presented. Recent literature on solid waste management in Jordan has been reviewed; and data on the total amount of municipal solid waste generated, compositional variations over the last two decades, and future projections are presented. The necessity, importance and needs of solid waste recovery and reuse are identified. The review of the legal frameworks indicated that there is a need for detailed and clear regulations dealing specifically with solid waste. The service cost analysis revealed that none of the municipalities in Jordan sufficiently recover the cost of the services, with more than 50% being subsidized from the municipalities' budgets. The allocation of the available resources was analyzed and service performance indicators assessed. Factors that should be taken into consideration when making the decision to move from a traditional SWM approach to a more integrated approach are highlighted and suggestions for a more smooth transition are recommended.     

Factors and values of willingness to pay for improved construction waste management--a perspective of Malaysian contractors

Malaysia is facing an increase in the generation of waste and of accompanying problems with the disposal of this waste. In the last two decades, extensive building and infrastructure development projects have led to an increase in the generation of construction waste material. The construction industry has a substantial impact on the environment, and its environmental effects are in direct relation to the quality and quantity of the waste it generates. This paper discusses general characteristics of the construction contractors, the contractors' willingness to pay (WTP) for improved construction waste management, determining factors which affect the amount of their willingness to pay, and suggestions and policy implications in the perspective of construction waste management in Malaysia. The data in this study is based on contractors registered with the construction industry development board (CIDB) of Malaysia. Employing the open ended contingent valuation method, the study assessed the contractors' average maximum WTP for improved construction waste management to be RM69.88 (1US$=3.6 RM) per tonne of waste. The result shows that the average maximum WTP is higher for large contractors than for medium and small contractors. The highest average maximum WTP value is RM88.00 for Group A (large contractors) RM78.25 for Group B (medium-size contractors) and RM55.80 for Group C (small contractors). One of the contributions of this study is to highlight the difference of CIDB registration grade in the WTP for improved construction waste management. It is found that contractors' WTP for improved waste collection and disposal services increases with the increase in contractors' current paid up capital. The identified factors and determinants of the WTP will assist the formulation of appropriate policies in addressing the construction waste problem in Malaysia and indirectly improve the quality of construction in the country.     

Medical waste management in Ibadan, Nigeria: obstacles and prospects

Quantification and characterization of medical waste generated in healthcare facilities (HCFs) in a developing African nation has been conducted to provide insights into existing waste collection and disposal approaches, so as to provide sustainable avenues for institutional policy improvement. The study, in Ibadan city, Nigeria, entailed a representative classification of nearly 400 healthcare facilities, from 11 local government areas (LGA) of Ibadan, into tertiary, secondary, primary, and diagnostic HCFs, of which, 52 HCFs were strategically selected. Primary data sources included field measurements, waste sampling and analysis and a questionnaire, while secondary information sources included public and private records from hospitals and government ministries. Results indicate secondary HCFs generate the greatest amounts of medical waste (mean of 10,238 kg/day per facility) followed by tertiary, primary and diagnostic HCFs, respectively. Characterised waste revealed that only approximately 3% was deemed infectious and highlights opportunities for composting, reuse and recycling. Furthermore, the management practices in most facilities expose patients, staff, waste handlers and the populace to unnecessary health risks. This study proffers recommendations to include (i) a need for sustained cooperation among all key actors (government, hospitals and waste managers) in implementing a safe and reliable medical waste management strategy, not only in legislation and policy formation but also particularly in its monitoring and enforcement and (ii) an obligation for each HCF to ensure a safe and hygienic system of medical waste handling, segregation, collection, storage, transportation, treatment and disposal, with minimal risk to handlers, public health and the environment.     

Hazardous waste management in Victoria Australia

The current hazardous waste management policy in Victoria, Australia is presented. A basic strategy includes waste minimisation, cradle to grave control, State regulated, privately owned waste treatment plants and a planned high temperature incinerator to be located in New South Wales. Public participation at all levels has been encouraged.     

Towards zero waste in emerging countries - a South African experience

The aim of this paper is to describe the optimisation of Waste Minimisation/Zero Waste strategies into an already established integrated waste management system and to present a Zero Waste model for post-consumer waste for urban communities in South Africa. The research was undertaken towards the fulfilment of the goals of the Polokwane Declaration on Waste Management [DEAT, 2001. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Government of South Africa. Polokwane Declaration. Drafted by Government, Civil Society and the Business Community. National Waste Summit, Polokwane, 26-28 September 2001], which has set as its target the reduction of waste generation and disposal by 50% and 25%, respectively, by 2012 and the development of a plan for Zero Waste by 2022. Two communities, adjacent to the Mariannhill Landfill site in Durban, were selected as a case study for a comparative analysis of formal and informal settlements. Since the waste generated from these two communities is disposed of at the Mariannhill landfill, the impact of Zero Waste on landfill volumes could be readily assessed. A Zero Waste scheme, based on costs and landfill airspace savings, was proposed for the area. The case study demonstrates that waste minimisation schemes can be introduced into urban areas, in emerging countries, with differing levels of service and that Zero Waste models are appropriate to urban areas in South Africa.     

A review of waste prevention through 3R under the concept of circular economy in China

The large waste generation has become one of the worldwide environmental problems. Circular economy has been seen as a way to tackle its urgent problems of environmental degradation and source scarcity. In recent years, under the concepts of circular economy, waste prevention through “Reduce, Reuse and Recycle” (3R) rules have attracted a broad concern in China. China has made some great achievements on waste management, and at the same time is facing many challenges. It is very necessary to share the management experiences and practices with the scholars and managers in other countries. This review covered the current situation and progress of circular economy development from the perspective of the legal regime and project practices, and the recycling practices of typical waste. The typical household wastes, including municipal solid wastes (MSW), e-waste, and end of life vehicles (ELV), were studied as the typical cases. Based on an examination of the statistical results, we also identified the potential problems and challenges for waste prevention through 3R in China. Finally, we provided some effective measures to further improve the waste management and recycling in China.     

Solid waste management practices in Turkey

As an economically developing country, Turkey has very well operated integrated solid waste management applications structured on modern facilities, besides over 2,000 scattered open dump areas in the country. Integrated waste management applications seem eligible for the metropolitan cities like Istanbul and Izmit (Kocaeli). Attempts have not been encouraging for the scattered regional settlements using central storage sites due to financial shortages and received rejections from nearby settlements. Small-scale compact solid waste management systems with materials recycling and composting can be more suitable alternatives in the small-scale regional settlements. The major constituents of municipal solid waste are organic in nature and approximately a quarter of municipal solid waste is recyclable. Although paper, including cardboard, is the main constituent, the composition of recyclable waste varies strongly by the source or the type of collection point. Solid wastes need primary treatment in order to be suitable for incineration and composting. Turkey needs to give more emphasis on the usage of modern solid waste removal technologies to overcome the overgrowing solid waste disposal problems.     

An analysis of a European hazardous waste transport registration system (EARS)

In this study a system analysis is presented for a European registration system for hazardous waste shipment notifications. The administrative procedures for the notifications according to the European Community (EC) directives are in use in several Member States, among others the Netherlands and Belgium. The new system should enable efficient notification procedures, without the large number of forms and the delays in obtaining transit and import permissions that are currently observed. Only one form is needed for each hazardous waste transport within the EC, accompanying the transport.The system also allows the generation of compiled information for all EC Member States by using a database structure. Rather than manually administrating the information of the forms, this information is transmitted and stored electronically. With an estimated number of 100,000 transfrontier transports of hazardous waste per year in the European Community, this greatly decreases time and costs for aggregating hazardous waste transport data. This aggregated information is necessary for the implementation, evaluation and further development of a coherent EC waste management policy for hazardous waste treatment and disposal.     

A purview of waste management evolution: special emphasis on USA

The generation of waste in urban regions over time is seen to impact the balance of anthropogenic and natural resources. Various national and international initiatives to manage urban solid waste are in place and has thus have evolved at present to form an assortment of different subcomponents involving environmental, administrative, regulatory, scientific, market, technology, and socio-economic factors, which has increasing bearing on the US due to its volume and nature of discards. This paper draws together the various aspects of municipal solid waste (MSW) management as it evolved, particularly in the American society through reviewing works and findings. In many parts of the country, waste management at present, primarily involves landfilling, incineration with and without energy recovery, recycling and composting. Legislation, nature of wastes and market trends continue to redefine management operations and its responsibilities and impacts. Complexities are added to it by the nature of urban development as well. New studies and concepts like 3Rs, cradle-to-cradle, industrial ecology, and integrated waste management are adding new dimensions for solving waste problems towards achieving sustainable resource use. Local initiatives, both public and private are in the forefront of adopting alternate waste management procedures. The assistance from various government and private bodies, supporting shifts in waste management approaches, have immense value, as according to the new paradigms, nothing goes to waste.     

Toxicity potentials from waste cellular phones,and a waste management policy integrating consumer,corporate, and government responsibilities

Cellular phones have high environmental impact potentials because of their heavy metal content and current consumer attitudes toward purchasing new phones with higher functionality and neglecting to return waste phones into proper take-back systems. This study evaluates human health and ecological toxicity potentials from waste cellular phones; highlights consumer, corporate, and government responsibilities for effective waste management; and identifies key elements needed for an effective waste management strategy. The toxicity potentials are evaluated by using heavy metal content, respective characterization factors, and a pathway and impact model for heavy metals that considers end-of-life disposal in landfills or by incineration. Cancer potentials derive primarily from Pb and As; non-cancer potentials primarily from Cu and Pb; and ecotoxicity potentials primarily from Cu and Hg. These results are not completely in agreement with previous work in which leachability thresholds were the metric used to establish priority, thereby indicating the need for multiple or revised metrics. The triple bottom line of consumer, corporate, and government responsibilities is emphasized in terms of consumer attitudes, design for environment (DfE), and establishment and implementation of waste management systems including recycling streams, respectively. The key strategic elements for effective waste management include environmental taxation and a deposit-refund system to motivate consumer responsibility, which is linked and integrated with corporate and government responsibilities. The results of this study can contribute to DfE and waste management policy for cellular phones.