Formation and degradation of triademinol after the use of triadimefon in a wheat monoculture]

During two vegetation periods, the behaviour of the triadimefon metabolite, triadimenol, in different plant parts of winter wheat and in soil was investigated. The fungicide Bayleton DF (triadimefon + captafol) was applied at the beginning of earing. Different ratios of triadimenol-A/-B were found in individual plant parts. Triadimenol-A predominated in the two uppermost leaves, and triadimenol-B in the roots and in the soil. No residues of triadimenol were found in grain at harvest time (detection limit 0.01 mg/kg).     

Abbauverhalten von triadimefon und seinem metaboliten triadimenol in einer weizenmonokultur

Summary

In a 4‐year study, the behaviour of the residues of triadimefon and its metabolite triadimenol in different plant parts of winter wheat and in soil was investigated. The fungicide Bayleton DF (triadimefon + captafol) was applied at the beginning of earing. Triadimefon residues were quickly degraded in the great majority of the examined samples (more than 90% within the first 2 weeks after application in all aerial parts of the plant). Triadimenol residues were considerably more persistent. No residues either of triadimefon or triadimenol were found in grain at harvest time (detection limit 0.01 mg/kg).     

Environmental fate of chlorothalonil in a Costa Rican banana plantation

The environmental fate of chlorothalonil (CHT) and its metabolites were studied under field-variable conditions in a commercial banana plantation in Costa Rica. Weather conditions were representative of a tropical environment and the fungicide applications were typical of those in banana production. The test plots were treated with Bravo 720 at 1.2 l ha(-1) of formulated product. Field persistence of CHT in soil and on banana leaves was measured during five consecutive months and after three aerial applications of the fungicide. Residues were analyzed in soil, sediment, water, banana leaves and drift cards by gas and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. In soil and on the surface of banana leaves, CHT dissipated rapidly with half-lives of 2.2 and 3.9 d, respectively. Soil residues persisted and were detected 85 d after application. The main metabolite found in soil, 4-hydroxy-chlorothalonil, accounted for approximately 65% of residues detected and was measured up to 6d after application.     

Effect of some preparates on soil microflora on the basis of soil bioassay

Abstract

Trials for control of soil‐borne plant pathogen fungi with biological and chemical fungicide preparates have been carried out in our Biological Control Laboratory for more than 10 years. During all these experiments soil bioassay was always carried out in order to observe the soil microflora. Here we mention one trial which confirms the general opinion that chemical treatments significantly change the soil microflora. The tested biological fungicide did not cause such changes.     

Determination of disulfoton and permethrin residues in an organic soil and their translocation into lettuce, onion and carrot.

The residues of disulfoton and permethrin in an organic soil and in vegetables grown in soil treated with a granular formulation of the pesticides were determined by gas chromatography. The residues were removed from soil or plant samples by successive extractions with acetone and hexane. Permethrin persisted in the soil for the initial 28 days and declined slowly during the rest of the season but disulfoton after persisting for one week at the applied concentration was degraded in the next two weeks. The insecticides did not translocate into the edible parts of the vegetables but were present in the root system of onion and lettuce. Carrot and lettuce yields were not singificantly different from those of the controls but onion yields were substantially decreased by the use of permethrin.     

Characterization of non-extractable residues of the fungicide dithianon in soil using 13C/14C-labelling techniques

The fate of the (14)C-labelled fungicide dithianon in soil is characterized by the formation of non-extractable, "bound" residues of approximately 63% of applied amount in 64 d. Humic acids containing these "bound" residues were isolated after conducting degradation studies of the active ingredient in an orthic luvisol under standardized conditions. In the same way, (13)C-labelled dithianon was incubated in an artificial soil which was produced by humification of (13)C-depleted straw in an incinerated soil. The "bound" residues of the (13)C-labelled dithianon in the humic acid fraction of the artificial soil were analyzed using (13)C-NMR techniques. There was no evidence of a covalent bonding of the residues to the humic substances. Results of polarity gradient high performance thin layer chromatography (AMD-HPTLC) of "bound" residues of the (14)C-labelled dithianon in the humic acid fraction indicate a sequestration process of metabolites into the humic substance as a possible binding mechanism.     

A correlation between the fate and non-extractable residue formation of 14C-metalaxyl and enzymatic activities in soil

Extracellular, oxidative soil enzymes like monophenol oxidases and peroxidases play an important role in transformation of xenobiotics and the formation of organic matter in soil. Additionally, these enzymes may be involved in the formation of non-extractable residues (NERs) of xenobiotics during humification processes. To examine this correlation, the fate of the fungicide ¹⁴C metalaxyl in soil samples from Ultuna (Sweden) was studied. Using different soil sterilization techniques, it was possible to differentiate between free, immobilized, and abiotic (“pseudoenzyme”-like) oxidative activities. A correlation between the formation of metalaxyl NER and soil organic matter content, biotic activities, as well as extracellular phenoloxidase and peroxidase activities in the bulk soil and its particle size fractions was determined. Extracellular soil-bound enzymes were involved in NER formation (up to 8% of applied radioactivity after 92 days) of the fungicide independently from the presence of living microbes and different distributions of the NER in the soil humic subfractions.     

Determination of disulfoton and permethrin residues in an organic soil and their translocation into lettuce,onion and carrot 1

Abstract

The residues of disulfoton and permethrin in an organic soil and in vegetables grown in soil treated with a granular formulation of the pesticides were determined by gas chromatography. The residues were removed from soil or plant samples by successive extractions with acetone and hexane. Permethrin persisted in the soil for the initial 28 days and declined slowly during the rest of the season but disulfoton after persisting for one week at the applied concentration was degraded in the next two weeks. The insecticides did not translocate into the edible parts of the vegetables but were present in the root system of onion and lettuce. Carrot and lettuce yields were not significantly different from those of the controls but onion yields were substantially decreased by the use of per‐methrin.     

Residues and dynamics of probenazole in rice field ecosystem

The simple and efficient method for determination of probenazole in soil, rice plant, and paddy water was developed, and the fate of probenazole in rice field ecosystem was also studied. Probenazole residues were extracted from sample, cleaned up by liquid/liquid partition and chromatographic column and then determined by gas chromatography with flame photometric detection. As far as the accuracy and precision was concerned, the method met certain standard. The LODs of probenazole calculated as a sample concentration (S/N ratio of 3) was 0.02 mg kg-1. The minimum detectable limit was 5x10(-10) g. The degradation of probenazole in soil, rice straw, and water was determined. The results showed that probenazole degradation in soil and rice straw coincided with C=0.576e-0.147t, C=17.858e-0.414t, respectively; the half-lives were about 4.7 and 1.7 d, respectively. The degradation rate of probenazole in rice straw was faster than that of in soil. Probenazole residue at 0.02 mg kg-1 could only be detected in paddy water within the first day after application. The final probenazole residues in soil, brown rice, and water were undetectable at levels of recommended and doubled dosage with an interval of 63 d. Therefore, a dosage of 1800-3600 g a.i. hm-2 was recommended, which could be considered as safe to human beings and animals. These would contribute to provide the scientific basis of using this fungicide.     

Copper bioavailability in the rhizosphere of maize (Zea mays L.) grown in two Italian soils

In this study, potentially bioavailable copper was estimated in two soils (a fungicide polluted and a natural soil) using a passive sampling technique, DGT. As plants can alter copper mobility and bioavailability in the soil, the rhizosphere properties of Zea mays L. were investigated using rhizoboxes.

Compared to the total concentration, the soluble and the potentially bioavailable copper concentration in the bulk soils were generally low (less than 0.20% and 0.06% respectively), with a sixfold increase in the rhizosphere of the polluted soil. Our results suggest that maize cultivation in a polluted vineyard soil could increase the potentially available fraction of copper. DGTs showed a good sensitivity to soil properties and to root-induced changes in the rhizosphere, but the potentially bioavailable copper could not be related to the copper concentration in the above ground parts of maize. The results suggest that DGT may be used to predict some effects of the cultivation of polluted soils, for example, metal mobility and increased availability, but they cannot mimic the uptake of a tolerant plant.

For both soils, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations were threefold higher in the rhizosphere than in the bulk soil, whilst bioaccumulation in leaves and roots was not significant. DOC production, usually effective in ion mobilization and assimilation, may help also in the reduction of Cu uptake at toxic concentrations. The sequestration of available Cu in soil and soil solution by DOC seems to contribute to maize tolerance.     

The acute toxicity of nickel to freshwater ciliates

The degradation of the (14)C-labelled fungicide dithianon in an orthic luvisol was investigated under standardized conditions in comparison to stimulated microbial activity by an amendment of maize straw. The compound is characterized by mineralization losses of approximately 33% and the formation of non-extractable bound residues of approximately 63% in 64 days. Despite the major role of microorganisms in mineralizing this compound, the formation of bound residues is not biotically induced. Gel permeation chromatography and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, as different size separation techniques of the humic acids fractions, showed differences in the distribution patterns of non-extractable residues depending on the addition of straw material. The results presented support the existence of humic substances in soil as a micellar system rather than as a biopolymer.     

Preliminary study on persistence in soil and residues in maize of imidacloprid

The aim of this work was to study the distribution of imidacloprid in soil and its translocation to roots and aerial parts of maize plant. The main objective was to assess imidacloprid residues in field environment, in order to provide data on honeybees exposure level to such an active substance. Imidacloprid has been detected and quantified by Triple Quadrupole HPLC-MS-MS. Pesticide persistence in the soil and its residues in pollen and in maize plants have been evaluated during the growing of maize plants developed from seeds dressed with Gaucho 350 FS (imidacloprid: 1.0 mg/seed). The sowing has been performed by means of a pneumatic precision drill. Samples have been collected at 30, 45, 60, 80, 130 days after the sowing, as pollen samples have been collected at the tasseling. Imidacloprid presence in aerial part of maize plant declined to 2-3 μg/kg 80 days after the sowing, while concentration in kernel at harvest was <1 μg/kg. Maize pollen represents an important part of protein supply of beehives, and it is of critical importance to bee foraging. The values detected (imidacloprid residues <1 μg/kg) showed that maize pollen source should not be relevant for acute toxicity impact on honey bees.     

A Box-Behnken design for determining the optimum experimental condition of the fungicide (Vapam) sorption onto soil modified with perlite

In the present study, response surface methodology (RSM) based on the Box-Behnken design (BBD) was employed to investigate the effects of the different operating conditions on the removal of the fungicide (Vapam) onto soil modified with perlite using sorption process. The process parameters such as pH of the fungicide solution (2, 5 and 8), temperature (15, 25 and 35°C), shaking time (2, 13 and 24 h) and the percentage of perlite in the modified soil (0, 2 and 4 %) were investigated using a four-factor-three-level Box-Behnken design at an initial fungicide concentration of C(0) = 1.6 mg/L as a fixed input parameter. A second-order quadratic model suggested the optimum conditions to be as follows: fungicide solution pH of 3.57, temperature of 15°C, shaking time of 3.5 h and 4% of perlite in the modified soil which resulted in the improvement of Vapam sorption. Under optimum conditions, the fungicide (Vapam) removal was predicted 12.88 μg/g by BBD. The confirmatory experiments were conducted and the results revealed that the fungicide removal was 13.14 μg/g which indicated that the predicted and the observed values of response (Vapam removal) were in close agreement. Therefore, the soil modified with perlite holds good potential for Vapam sorption. This is the first report on fungicide Vapam sorption onto soil modified with perlite using statistical experimental design employing response surface methodology.     

Agricultural reuse of reclaimed water and uptake of organic compounds: pilot study at Mutah University wastewater treatment plant, Jordan

The residues of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), chlorinated benzenes (CBs) and phenols were investigated for soil, wastewater, groundwater and plants. The uptake concentration of these compounds was comparatively determined using various plant types: Zea mays L., Helianthus annus L., Capsicum annum L., Abelmoschus esculentus L., Solanum melongena L. and Lycopersicon esculentum L. which were grown in a pilot site established at Mutah University wastewater treatment plant, Jordan. Soil, wastewater, groundwater and various plant parts (roots, leaves and fruits) samples were extracted in duplicate, cleaned up by open-column chromatography and analyzed by a multi-residue analytical methods using gas chromatography equipped with either mass selective detector (GC/MS), electron capture detector (GC/ECD), or flame ionization detector (FID). Environmentally relevant concentrations of targeted compounds were detected for wastewater much higher than for groundwater. The overall distribution profiles of PAHs and PCBs appeared similar for groundwater and wastewater indicating common potential pollution sources. The concentrations of PAHs, PCBs and phenols for different soils ranged from 169.34 to 673.20 microg kg(-1), 0.04 to 73.86 microg kg(-1) and 73.83 to 8724.42 microg kg(-1), respectively. However, much lower concentrations were detected for reference soil. CBs were detected in very low concentrations. Furthermore, it was found that different plants have different uptake and translocation behavior. As a consequence, there are some difficulties in evaluating the translocation of PAHs, CBs, PCBs and phenols from soil-roots-plant system. The uptake concentrations of various compounds from soil, in which plants grown, were dependent on plant variety and plant part, and they showed different uptake concentrations. Among the different plant parts, roots were found to be the most contaminated and fruits the least contaminated.     

A Box-Behnken design for determining the optimum experimental condition of the fungicide (Vapam) sorption onto soil modified with perlite

In the present study, response surface methodology (RSM) based on the Box-Behnken design (BBD) was employed to investigate the effects of the different operating conditions on the removal of the fungicide (Vapam) onto soil modified with perlite using sorption process. The process parameters such as pH of the fungicide solution (2, 5 and 8), temperature (15, 25 and 35°C), shaking time (2, 13 and 24 h) and the percentage of perlite in the modified soil (0, 2 and 4 %) were investigated using a four-factor-three-level Box-Behnken design at an initial fungicide concentration of C₀ = 1.6 mg/L as a fixed input parameter. A second-order quadratic model suggested the optimum conditions to be as follows: fungicide solution pH of 3.57, temperature of 15°C, shaking time of 3.5 h and 4% of perlite in the modified soil which resulted in the improvement of Vapam sorption. Under optimum conditions, the fungicide (Vapam) removal was predicted 12.88 μg/g by BBD. The confirmatory experiments were conducted and the results revealed that the fungicide removal was 13.14 μg/g which indicated that the predicted and the observed values of response (Vapam removal) were in close agreement. Therefore, the soil modified with perlite holds good potential for Vapam sorption. This is the first report on fungicide Vapam sorption onto soil modified with perlite using statistical experimental design employing response surface methodology.     

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in crops from long-term field experiments amended with sewage sludge

This study reports on the polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content of crop plants grown at three different field experiments where controlled additions of sewage sludge were made a number of years ago. Archived samples of several crops have been analysed from sludge-amended and unsludged control plots for 15 PAH compounds. Root crops and above ground plant parts were available for several years following the last applications of sludge. Although the soil PAH burden increased substantially due to sewage sludge additions, and residues of these compounds have persisted in the soils for many years, increased PAH concentrations relative to the unsludged controls were not consistently detected in plant tissues. Plant samples were relatively enriched with low molecular weight compounds such as acenaphthene/fluorene nd phenanthrene. Various lines of evidence indicate that PAHs detected in above ground plant parts are chiefly derived from atmospheric inputs, while PAHs detected in root crops probably arise from adsorption to the root surface.     

Dieldrin uptake by vegetable crops grown in contaminated soils

The aim of these trials was to study the distribution of dieldrin in soil and its translocation to roots and the aerial parts of vegetable crops grown in greenhouses and fields. The main objectives were to characterize dieldrin accumulation in plant tissues in relation to the levels of soil contamination; uptake capability among plants belonging to different species, varieties and cultivars. The presence of the contaminant was quantified by gas chromatography-electron capture detector (GC-ECD) and confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS). The results showed a translocation of residues in cucurbitaceous fruits and flowers confirming that zucchini, cucumber and melon are crops with high uptake capability. The maximum level of dieldrin residue at 0.01 mg/kg was found to be a threshold value to safeguard the quality production of cucurbits. Tomato, lettuce and celery were identified as substitute crops to grow in contaminated fields.     

Influence of the amendment of corn straw on the degradation behaviour of the fungicide dithianon in soil

Degradation studies were conducted with the fungicide (14)C-dithianon under standard conditions for 64 days in soil. The compound is characterized by mineralization losses of approx. 33% and the formation of non-extractable (bound) residues of approx. 63% in 64 days. The microbial activity of the soil was stimulated by an amendment of corn straw simulating post-harvest conditions. This addition of straw decreased the mineralization of the compound initially. At the end of the incubation period, however, the mineralization rate was higher in the straw amended soil compared to the control. The addition of straw increased the amount of radiocarbon in the desorption solutions. Thus higher amounts of incorporated radiocarbon could be found in the biomass of the amended soil. Model calculations show that the straw amendment has a sustained influence on the mineralization of the compound. Potential mechanisms of the effect of dissolved organic matter on the sorption/desorption equilibrium are discussed.     

Uptake of soil applied paclobutrazol in mango (Mangifera indica L.) and its persistence in fruit and soil

Paclobutrazol is a plant growth regulator that is used to counter alternate bearing habit of mango (Mangifera indica L.). The uptake and persistence of paclobutrazol residues in mango fruits and soil respectively, was studied following its application at tree basin soil @5 and 10 g a.i. per tree for three consecutive years. Residues of paclobutrazol were found in unripe mango fruits at levels below permissible level while the same was generally not detected in fully mature mango fruits ready for harvest. There was no effect of consecutive yearly applications on the amount of paclobutrazol residues in mango fruit. However, the residues of paclobutrazol were found in tree basin soil (0-15 cm) at the end of each season and there was a small increase in the amount of residues corresponding to the number of yearly applications that had been made. GC-MS analysis confirmed that the sample peaks obtained corresponded to paclobutrazol residues present in mango and soil.     

Studies on bound 14C-prometryn residues in soil and plants

A high-temperature distillation technique was developed for determining and chemically identifying the bound (nonextractable) residues of ¹⁴C-prometryn in an organic soil and plants. A considerable portion of the bound ¹⁴C residues in the incubated organic soil was identified as prometryn. These residues were absorbed by plants grown in the soil. Hono-and di-$\text{N}$-dealkylated metabolites of prometryn were present in the plant bound ¹⁴C residues and a major portion of bound residues as associated with lignin. Soil-bound ¹⁴C residues were also released from soil by microbes. The bound ¹⁴C residues in soil were associated with humin, humic acid, and fulvic acid fractions. Thermoanalytical methods were used to obtained information on the nature and location of ¹⁴C bound residues in soil and humic materials.