THE CONTINUING EVOLUTION OF AN AUSTRALIAN WATER RESOURCES POLICY1

ABSTRACT: Australia's extremely limited water resources highlight the need for policy guidelines for management. During the 1970s, there was the gradual evolution of a national water resources policy, facilitated by a nationally agreed statement of objectives and culminating in a federal policy statement presented in 1979. However, the Australian constitution gives major responsibility for water resources to the states. Further, the federal policy statement seems to assume that each state has a water resources policy and that it accords with the nationally agreed objectives. This is not the case, and the practical management of Australia's water resources falls short of the principles set out in the policy document. The River Murray, the nation's major water resource, provides ample evidence of this fact. With very limited water resources, Australia urgently needs to reduce the disparity between principle and practice in their management.     

A SURVEY OF STATE WATER CONSERVATION PROGRAMS IN THE U.S.1

ABSTRACT: Adequate water supplies are critical to the maintenance of a community's health and economic well-being. Across the nation communities are struggling to meet an expanding demand for water from municipal, industrial, agricultural, recreation, water quality, and power generation users. As the demand grows and communities actively compete with one another for a limited water supply, states are being called upon to help solve the problem. One possible solution that is being used in many areas is the development and implementation of a water conservation program to stretch the limited supply as far as possible. using a mailed survey, state water conservation programs and some of the characteristics of the different programs were documented. Responses to the nationwide survey were obtained from all 50 states. The specific water conservation program elements on which information was received from the survey included laws and restricted use, community assistance, education, research, and other services. Recommendations for states developing or considering the development of a water conservation program are outlined.     

EMERGING CONCEPTS FOR THE CONDUCT OF STATE WATER RESOURES PLANNING1

ABSTRACT: The development of water resources planning at the state level is discussed. Although there are significant specific differences among state planning programs, some common general principles of state water resources planning are emerging over time. In the interest of reconciling conflict over water allocation states are engaged in policy clarification, mediation of interst group conflict, and provision of baseline information.     

WATER SUPPLY FORECASTING IN REAL-TIME1

ABSTRACT: A strategy is developed for making seasonal water supply forecasts in real time. It links the traditional regression based forecasting techniques to real-time data acquired by systems such as the Soil Conservation Service SNOTEL and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Hydromet networks. The concept is based on interpolating between the forecast values obtained by using real-time data in the forecast equations that bracket the real time. Different interpolation procedures were examined and the procedure for calculating confidence intervals about the forecast estimates is developed. The entire conceptual procedure is demonstrated using data from the Reynolds Creek, Idaho, experimental watershed maintained by the USDA-ARS Northwest Watershed Research Center in Boise, Idaho.     

IMPACT OF DROUGHT ON QUALITY OF POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY SOURCES IN THE SANGAMON RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: The analysis of stream flow and several water quality parameters in six Illinois rivers showed both deterioration and improvement in quality indicators during 1976–1977 drought. The adverse impacts were an increase of ammonia and manganese concentrations and, to a lesser degree, increased concentrations of phenol and specific conductance. At the worst point during the drought, the 12-month moving average of monthly ammonia concentration in the Sangamon River was about 620 percent higher than the antecedent value. On the other hand, average concentrations of nitrites and nitrates, total iron, and the number of coliform bacteria significantly decreased. This positive response suggests that streams which are considered unsuitable for municipal supply due to high levels of these quality indicators may be used as emergency sources during droughts.     

THE ENHANCED ROLE OF WATER CONSERVATION IN THE COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF WATER PROJECTS1

The concept of water conservation has increased in importance because of revisions in the rules and procedures for performing cost-benefit analyses of federal water projects. These revisions include a requirement that nonstructural and water conservation measures be incorporated into economic assessments of projects. Project analyses will now proceed as if water supplies were allocated “most effectively,” that is, to their highest valued uses. A related requirement provides that the net benefits of any project should now be valued using willingness to pay measures. A specific cost-benefit methodology accommodating the revisions is constructed and discussed. Informational requirements for applying this methodology are identified. In addition to being consistent with federal mandates, this technique offers important advantages over the traditional “requirements” approach to water supply planning.     

IMPACT OF DROUGHT ON QUALITY IN A NEW JERSEY WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM1

ABSTRACT. New Jersey, together with other states in the northeast, was stricken with drought during 1961-66. The effect of this drought was most severe in the northern part of the State. The water quality of the Passaic River, which drains the urban, industrialized northeast, perhaps deteriorated the most among the major drainage systems. This river system is used as a raw-water source by 10 water suppliers. The impact of the drought upon the water supply of the Passaic Valley Water Commission, the most downstream of the basin's suppliers, which supplies an average of about 90 million gallons a day to more than 650,000 persons, is evaluated herein. The drought's impact on the raw-water quality is appraised by the comparison of before-and-after qualities of dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, biochemical-oxygen demand, turbidity, and hardness. For example, at the worst point during the drought, monthly average dissolved-solids content in the raw water were about 210 percent, hardness, about 167 percent, and biochemical-oxygen demand about 270 percent higher than antecedent values. In general, the study concludes that the drought produced a deterioration in both raw and finished water quality, and is estimated to have increased chemical-treatment costs during the drought by about $650,000.     

PERCEIVED WATER QUALITY AND THE VALUE OF SEASONAL HOMES1

ABSTRACT: The impact of degraded water quality on the value of seasonal homes adjacent to St. Albans Bay on Lake Champaign in northern Vermont is estimated using hedonic price functions. The Value of properties located adjacent to the bay are depressed by about 20 percent, or $4,500 on average, compared with similar nearby properties on the larger but cleaner lake. Water quality degradation resulted in decressed property values of approximately two million dollars in the area surrounding the Bay.     

IMPACT OF WATER CUTBACK ON SUGARCANE PRODUCTION IN THE FLORIDA EVERGLADES1

ABSTRACT: Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) was planted in six lysimeters containing Pahokee muck (Lithic Mediaprist) where water tables were maintained at 30, 60, and 90 cm depths. The main objective was to study the impact of a 40 percent water cutback (108 mm) on sugarcane production during the period near the end of the dry season (i.e., May). The water cutback treatment was simulated through manipulation of water table depth. Due to the high available water capacity of the muck soil and selection of a sugarcane cultivar ‘CP63-588’ (which has a high tolerance of water table fluctuations), the sugarcane growth, and the yields of sugarcane biomass and sugar were not significantly different as a result of the treatments with and without 40 percent water cutback during a period of two months. This result is in good agreement with the 1981 cane yield in the Everglades Agricultural Area where a 35 percent water cutback was imposed during the 1981 drought.     

CAPITAL COSTS OF RURAL WATER SYSTEMS: AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH1

ABSTRACT: In the last two decades the federal government has provided substantial capital to construct rural water distribution systems. Loans at subsidized interest rates and front-end grants through the Farmers Home Administration have been the main source of this capital. Recent federal policy redirections have reduced substantially the availability of grants and subsidized loans. Because of design and material differences, capital cost estimates from urban systems are not uniformly applicable to rural water services. This study presents an econometric analysis of capital costs, using Illinois rural water system construction contract bids. Cost equations by systems components representing 90 percent of capital costs are estimated. The type of information developed here can be used in initial planning and optimization design models contributing to the efficient provision of rural water services.     

IMPACT ON RESIDENTIAL WATER CONSUMPTION OF AN INCREASING RATE STRUCTURE1

ABSTRACT: A two-step procedure is used to estimate the impact of an increasing rate structure on residential water use. An error components regression procedure is used to estimate demand relationships for a period prior to the rate change. Water use is predicted for the post rate change period, assuming that the rate structure was not changed. Comparison of actual with predicted use indicate that water use declined as a result of the imposition of the increasing rate structure.     

TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTING TRENDS IN LAKE WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: With the advent of standards and criteria for water quality variables, there has been an increasing concern about the changes of these variables over time. Thus, sound statistical methods for determining the presence or absence of trends are needed. A Trend Detection Method is presented that provides: 1) Hypothesis Formulation - statement of the problem to be tested, 2) Data Preparation - selection of water quality variable and data, 3) Data Analysis - exploratory data analysis techniques, and 4) Statistical Tests - tests for detecting trends. The method is utilized in a stepwise fashion and is presented in a nonstatistical manner to allow use by those not well versed in statistical theory. While the emphasis herein is on lakes, the method may be adopted easily to other water bodies.     

NATIONWIDE ASSESSMENT OF URBAN RUNOFF IMPACT ON RECEIVING WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: Urban stormwater runoff has been recognized as a potential major contributor of pollution to receiving waters. However the projected high costs of control have prompted an examination of the extent to which these impacts have been documented. A nationwide search was conducted for case studies demonstrating a cause-effect linkage between urban runoff and impairment of beneficial uses in receiving waters. The results indicate that numerous definitions of “impacts” are being used and that few substantive data exist to support many of these allegations. Results of a preliminary impact assessment are presented for the 248 urbanized areas of the United States. Then, the results of more recent efforts to assess these impacts in several case studies are described. This assessment demonstrates the critical need for additional short-term and long-term sampling programs.     

AN ANALYSIS OF RISING IRRIGATION COSTS IN THE GREAT PLAINS1

ABSTRACT: Irrigation costs are rising rapidly on the 32 million acres irrigated with ground water. Ground water levels are declining under about 15 million of those acres adding to increased costs. However, from 1975 to 1982, 75 to 80 percent of increased ground water irrigation costs were due to higher nominal energy prices and interest rates. In real dollars, adjusted for inflation, these costs have risen faster than other irrigation costs and the real rise in commodity prices has been very small. A continuation of rapidly rising costs and slowly rising prices will shorten the economic life of those aquifers experiencing declining water levels. That same condition of prices and costs place all ground water irrigators in a disadvantaged position compared to nonirrigators and could cause a decline in ground water irrigation.     

IMPACTS OF SILVICULTURE ON FLATWOODS RUNOFF,WATER QUALITY,AND NUTRIENT BUDGETS1

ABSTRACT: Three forest watersheds were isolated by roads in poorly drained flatwoods of Florida. After 12 months of baseline calibration the forest in one watershed was harvested and regenerated with minimum disturbance, in the second watershed with maximum disturbance from common practices, and in the third watershed left intact as a control. Water yields from the maximum treatments increased a significant 250 percent while that from the minimum treatments increased 117 percent as compared to the control. Weed vegetation remaining after the minimum treatment continued significant water use. The water yield increases lasted only for one year. Water quality was reduced by both treatments with the most effect immediately after the maximum disturbance. Absolute levels of suspended sediments, potassium, and calcium remained relatively low. The maximum treatment caused significant changes in net cation balances only for one year. The information shows relative little effect of silvicultural practices in flatwoods on water quality as compared to data from upland forests. Water yield increases may be manipulated by the degree of harvest and weed control practices.     

ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF WATER AMONG REGIONAL ECONOMIC SECTORS USING THE 1972 NATIONAL INTERINDUSTRY FORMAT1

ABSTRACT: Recent growth in irrigated agriculture and metropolitan areas of the Western United States suggests that if growth continues, there will be a potential shortage in future water resources. Compound the expansion of agriculture and municipal demands with possible enaction of instream flow requirements, a method to allocate water among alternative economic sectors in the West is needed. In this study, an interindustry-linear programming model based on the 1972 national model format is used to allocate scarce water supplies among competing regional economic sectors. The shadow price of water and the sectorial value of water at different availabilities for each competing sector is derived. Also, economic sectors are ranked by value of water at different water availabilities.     

THE EFFECTS OF AGE AND WATER FLUCTUATIONS ON FISH POPULATIONS1

ABSTRACT Two lakes having similar soil types were studied to determine the effects of age and water fluctuations on plankton, benthos and fish populations. Bluff Lake is an older man-made lake which is drawn down in the mid-summer. Oktibbeha County Lake is a young lake and the water levels are maintained. Chemistry data from the two lakes indicate that their chemical properties are very similar. Neither lake would be considered very fertile. Net plankton populations in Bluff Lake and Oktibbeha County Lake were comparable when analyzed on a number of organisms per liter basis. Fluctuations of water levels did not seem to have an effect on the net plankton populations. The benthic population in Bluff Lake is slightly higher than that found in Oktibbeha County Lake. This is true for both numbers and weight per square meter. The species composition of benthic organisms in the two lakes were similar. Based on one-acre samples from each lake, Bluff Lake has a more balanced fish population than does Oktibbeha County Lake. Neither, however, seems to support populations of game fish in which a high percentage of these are in the available or harvestable range. Both lakes contain high populations of gizzard shad.     

WATER CONSTRAINTS ON ENERGY DEVELOPMENT: A FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS1

ABSTRACT: The pressure on water resources from energy resource development and transformation is likely to be greater in the future than it has been in the past. A rational resolution of the political problems that this situation will generate requires that: 1) planning based on predictions of future energy supply and demand be replaced by scenario, or “what if?” analysis; 2) full attention be paid to the uncertainties in per-unit-energy water requirements; 3) suitable stochastic measures of water availability be used to compare water supply with water demand; 4) realistic ecological criteria, and other alternative use criteria, be developed for estimating impacts of water withdrawn or consurned for energy development; 5) human consequences of ecological impaccts are described in a manner that will allow the political process to intervene in an optimum manner to allocate water resources.     

APPLICATION OF CRITICAL PATH METHOD TO WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

ABSTRACT. The task of resource management, in this case water resources, is rapidly becoming more complex, particularly because decision making is often contingent upon various prior activities and sets of data. Comprehensive planning is required in order to prevent misallocation of resources or mismanagement in resource development. Such planning involves five general phases which are applicable to any problem faced by society: (1) problem identification; (2) formulation of alternatives; (3) evaluation of alternatives; (4) implementation; (5) review. There have been many attempts to simplify the planning process and effectively carry out these five phases. The experience of the Alberta Water Resources Division has been that the Critical Path Method is one of the most useful tools available today for planning. It involves two basic steps: (1) preparation of a network diagram which (a) identifies all the activities necessary for the completion of a project, (b) correctly sequences these activities, (c) allocates resources; and (2) mathematical computations for scheduling the activities. In other words, this approach breaks a task down into smaller units or activities for easier organization, scheduling, and performance for eventual completion of the project. This paper will illustrate the effectiveness of the Critical Path Method by discussing its application to actual water resources projects.     

PHOSPHORUS MANAGEMENT TO PROTECT LAKE WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: The Hallett Quarry gravel pit lakes are an active sand and gravel extraction operation located 0.4 km north of the City of Ames, Iowa. During periods of drought, these lakes serve as a supplemental water supply for Ames. A modified version of the Vollenweider input-output model was used to predict future water quality under various watershed land use, drainage, and lake configurations. The dominant factor controlling the future water quality of the lakes was found to be the nutrient input. It is recommended that a management plan to protect the future water quality should be oriented towards reducing the sources of phosphorus to the lakes.