Cognitive failures, driving errors and driving accidents

INTRODUCTION: The impact of a driver's cognitive capability on traffic safety has not been adequately studied. This study examined the relationship between cognitive failures, driving errors and accident data. METHOD: Professional drivers from Iran (160 males, ages 18-65) participated in this study. The cognitive failures questionnaire (CFQ) and the driver error questionnaire were administered. The participants were also asked other questions about personal driving information. A principal component analysis with varimax rotation was performed to determine the factor structure of the CFQ. Poisson regression models were developed to predict driving errors and accidents from total CFQ scores and the extracted factors. RESULTS: Total CFQ scores were associated with driving error rates, but not with accidents. However, the 2 extracted factors suggested an increased effect on accidents and were strongly associated with driving errors. DISCUSSION: Although the CFQ was not able to predict driving accidents, it could be used to identify drivers susceptible to driving errors. Further development of a driving-oriented cognitive failure scale is recommended to help identify error prone drivers. Such a scale may be beneficial to licensing authorities or for developing driver selection and training procedures for organizations.     

Drugs and driving

The authors present a global overview on the issue of drugs and driving covering four major areas: (1) Epidemiology and Prevalence--which reviews epidemiological research, summarizes available information, discusses the methodological shortcomings of extant studies, and makes recommendations for future research to better define prevalence and epidemiology; (2) Effects of Medicinal and Illegal Drugs on Driving Performance--focuses on the six classes of drugs most often found in impaired and injured drivers, draws conclusions regarding the risk of these drugs to traffic safety and discusses the need for additional research; (3) Toxicological Issues--discusses ways to identify drug users via behavioral testing and analytical techniques, reviews the approaches used by different countries, screening and confirmation techniques, alternative specimens (e.g., urine, oral fluid, sweat), and how rapid roadside testing could be coupled with behavioral and laboratory testing in an effective approach to identifying and prosecuting drugged drivers; (4) Driving Under the Influence of Drugs [DUID] Laws--provides an overview of DUID laws in the United States and Europe, discusses the basic tenets of these laws, the various types of DUID statutes, the reasons why many existing laws hinder the prosecution of drugged drivers and the rationale for developing per se legislation as a strategy to more effectively manage the drugged driver problem.     

基于驾驶模拟的自动驾驶接管行为研究*

为探索有条件自动驾驶对非驾驶相关任务的允准边界,基于实车驾驶模拟器,设计自动驾驶接管试验典型场景,招募30名被试者开展驾驶模拟试验;要求驾驶人执行3种分心形式的驾驶次任务,系统发出接管请求提示后,驾驶人接管车辆控制权以避免险情发生,并分析驾驶人接管反应时间、驾驶负荷以及驾驶绩效等相关数据。结果表明:驾驶次任务涉及的分心形式越复杂,接管过程安全性越差,视觉分心任务与操作分心任务对接管行为影响显著;驾驶人更倾向于选择制动操作接管车辆,次任务分心程度越高,制动接管比例越大;与乘客聊天对接管行为影响不显著,看视频和玩手机游戏均会显著延长接管反应时间,增加工作负荷与车辆纵向减速度,玩手机游戏还会显著提升车辆横向加速度。     

Impact of perceptual countermeasures on driving behavior at curves using driving simulator

Objective: The probability of crash occurrence on horizontal curves is 1.5 to 4 times higher than that on tangent sections. A majority of these crashes are associated with human errors. Therefore, human behavior in curves needs to be corrected.

Methodology: In this study, 2 different road marking treatments, optical circles and herringbone patterns, were used to influence driver behavior while entering a curve on a 2-lane rural road section. A driving simulator was used to perform the experiment. The simulated road sections are replicas of 2 real road sections in Flanders.

Results: Both treatments were found to reduce speed before entering the curve. However, speed reduction was more gradual when optical circles were used. A herringbone pattern had more influence on lateral position than optical circles by forcing drivers to maintain a safe distance from opposing traffic in the adjacent lane.

Conclusion: The study concluded that among other low-cost speed reduction methods, optical circles are effective tools to reduce speed and increase drivers’ attention. Moreover, a herringbone pattern can be used to reduce crashes on curves, mainly for head-on crashes where the main problem is inappropriate lateral position.     

Relationships between frequency of driving under the influence of cannabis,self-reported reckless driving and risk-taking behavior observed in a driving simulator

IntroductionThe role of cannabis consumption in traffic crashes is unclear and the causal link between cannabis and collisions is still to be demonstrated. While cannabis use is very likely to impair driving ability, there is as yet no overwhelming evidence that cannabis use in isolation contributes more to collisions than other characteristics inherent to cannabis users. As noted in a growing body of literature, individuals driving under the influence of cannabis (DUIC) seem to exhibit a general reckless driving style putting them at higher risk to be involved in traffic crashes.MethodThis study aims at investigating the relationship between self-reported DUIC and reckless driving by means of self-reported measures and direct observations made in a driving simulator. Participants (n = 72) were required to be between 18 and 25 years of age, to hold a valid driver's license, and to drive at least twice a week. They completed standard driving simulation tasks recreating everyday on-road trivial conditions.ResultsResults show that people admitting that they commit more real-life dangerous driving behaviors reached higher maximum speed and demonstrated more reckless driving behaviors on the driving simulation tasks. Self-reported DUIC is associated with a risky driving style including a broad range of reckless on-road behaviors and support the problem driving behavior theory. Moreover, beyond confounding factors, both self-report DUIC and observed dangerous behaviors are associated with real-life traffic violations.Practical applicationsSince DUIC appears to be related to an overall reckless style of driving, it is proposed that public safety policies should be more holistic, simultaneously targeting multiple on-road dangerous behaviors for intervention.     

Covariability in three dimensions of teenage driving risk behavior: impaired driving,risky and unsafe driving behavior,and secondary task engagement

Objective: This research examined the extent to which teenagers who engaged in one form of risky driving also engaged in other forms and whether risky driving measures were reciprocally associated over time.

Methods: The data were from waves 1, 2, and 3 (W1, W2, and W3) of the NEXT Generation study, with longitudinal assessment of a nationally representative sample starting with 10th graders starting in 2009–2010. Three measures of risky driving were assessed in autoregressive and cross-lagged analyses: driving while alcohol/drug impaired (DWI), Checkpoints Risky Driving Scale (risky and unsafe driving), and secondary task engagement while driving.

Results: In adjusted autoregression models, the risk variables demonstrated high levels of stability, with significant associations observed across the 3 waves. However, associations between variables were inconsistent. DWI at W2 was associated with risky and unsafe driving at W3 (β = 0.21, P < .01); risky and unsafe driving at W1 was associated with DWI at W2 (β = 0.20, P < .01); and risky and unsafe driving at W2 is associated with secondary task engagement at W3 (β = 0.19, P < .01). Over time, associations between DWI and secondary task engagement were not significant.

Conclusions: Our findings provide modest evidence for the covariability of risky driving, with prospective associations between the Risky Driving Scale and the other measures and reciprocal associations between all 3 variables at some time points. Secondary task engagement, however, appears largely to be an independent measure of risky driving. The findings suggest the importance of implementing interventions that addresses each of these driving risks.     

Deconstructing a gender difference: driving cessation and personal driving history of older women

PROBLEM: The purpose of this study is to understand the reasons behind older women's driving cessation by comparing the driving histories of Finnish women who either gave up or renewed their drivers license at the age of 70. METHOD: A mail survey was sent to all Finnish women born in 1927 who gave up their license in 1997 (N=1,476) and to a corresponding random sample of women who renewed their license (N=1,494). The total response rate was 42.1%. RESULTS: The length and level of activity of personal driving history were strongly associated with driving cessation and continuation. Ex-drivers tended to have an inactive driving career behind them, whereas drivers had a more active personal driving history. In addition, those women with an active, "male-like" driving history who had decided to stop driving gave reasons for driving cessation that were similar to what is known about older men's reasons to give up driving. The results suggest that the decision to stop driving is related to driving habits rather than gender.     

Higher cue utilization in driving supports improved driving performance and more effective visual search behaviors

IntroductionOnce qualified, drivers rarely receive objective feedback concerning their performance. This is especially the case in the context of cognitive skills such as situation assessment. The aim of this study was to test the construct validity of an online assessment of motor-vehicle driver cue utilization that forms the foundation for situation assessment. Method: Seventy-one undergraduate Psychology students with broadly comparable driving experience completed a motor-vehicle driving version of EXPERTise 2.0, an online tool that enables inferences concerning the utilization of cues based on responses to task-related stimuli. They also completed a simulated driving task while fitted with an eye tracking device, during which a range of hazards were presented with participants’ responses recorded. Results: The results indicated that higher cue utilization was associated with fewer driving errors and collisions, fewer visual fixations, and fewer saccades in comparison to participants with lower cue utilization. Conclusion: The results provide support for the construct validity of EXPERTise 2.0 as an effective measure of cue utilization in the context of driving.Practical applicationsProviding comparative feedback to drivers concerning their development of situation assessment skills may provide opportunities for further training and development, thereby reducing the likelihood of motor-vehicle accidents.     

Changes in driving performance after first and second eye cataract surgery: A driving simulator study

Introduction: This study investigated the separate impact of first eye and second eye cataract surgery on driving performance, as measured on a driving simulator. Method: Forty-four older drivers with bilateral cataract aged 55+ years, awaiting first eye cataract surgery participated in a prospective cohort study. They completed a questionnaire, visual tests and a driving simulator assessment at three time points: before first eye, after first eye, and after second eye cataract surgery. Generalized Estimating Equation Poisson or linear regression models were undertaken to examine the change in four driving outcomes of interest after adjusting for cataract surgery and other potential confounders. Results: The rate of crashes/near crashes decreased significantly by 36% (incidence rate ratio (IRR) 0.64, 95% CI 0.47–0.88, p = 0.01) after first eye surgery and 47% (IRR 0.53, 95% CI 0.35–0.78, p < 0.001) after second eye surgery, compared to before first eye cataract surgery, after accounting for confounders. The rate of crashes/near crashes also decreased with better contrast sensitivity (IRR 0.69, 95% CI 0.48–0.90, p = 0.041). A separate model found that time spent speeding 10 kilometers per hour or more over the limit after second eye surgery was significantly less (0.14 min, p = 0.002), compared to before first eye surgery, after accounting for confounders. As contrast sensitivity improved, the duration of speeding also decreased significantly by 0.46 min (p = 0.038). There were no statistically significant changes in lane excursions or speed variation. Practical applications: The findings highlight the importance of timely first and second eye cataract surgery to ensure driver safety, especially as older drivers wait for second eye cataract surgery. It also provides further evidence that contrast sensitivity is probably a better predictor of driving ability in older drivers with cataract than visual acuity, the measure on which driver licensing requirements are currently based, and should also be used when assessing fitness to drive.     

基于实车驾驶试验的螺旋匝道小客车纵向驾驶行为研究

为明确螺旋匝道(螺旋桥)驾驶操纵行为及车辆状态特征,选取2条桥头立交螺旋匝道和2座螺旋桥,开展小客车实车路试,通过连续采集行驶速度、加速度、踏板力等驾驶数据,分析螺旋匝道(桥)及前后衔接段的纵向驾驶行为特性.结果表明:行驶速度在螺旋匝道范围内基本恒定,并明显高于设计速度,螺旋匝道段的速度分布比主线段更集中,螺旋匝道对驾...     

Graduated driver licensing and safer driving

Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) inserts between the leaner permit and full licensure an intermediate or "provisional" license that allows novices to drive unsupervised but subject to provisions intended to reduce the risks that accompany entry into highway traffic. Introduction of GDL has been followed by lowered accident rates, resulting from both limiting exposure of novices to unsafe situations and by helping them to deal with them more safely. Sources of safer driving include extended learning, early intervention, contingent advancement, and multistage instruction. To extend the learning process, most GDL systems lengthen the duration of the learner phase and require a specified level of adult-supervised driving. Results indicate that extended learning can reduce accidents substantially if well structured and highly controlled. Early intervention with novice traffic violators have shown both a general deterrent effect upon novice violators facing suspension and a specific effect upon those who have experienced it. Making advancement to full licensure contingent upon a violation-free record when driving on the provisional license has also evidenced a reduction in accidents and violations during that phase of licensure. Multistage instruction attempts development of advanced skills only after novices have had a chance to master more basic skills. Although this element of GDL has yet to be evaluated, research indicates crash reduction is possible in situations where it does not increase exposure to risk. While the various elements of GDL have demonstrated potential benefit in enhancing the safety of novice drivers, considerable improvement in the nature and enforcement of GDL requirements is needed to realize that potential.     

Identifying risky drivers with simulated driving

Objective: The present study aimed to examine whether high-risk drivers differ from low-risk drivers in driving behavior in a simulated environment.

Method: The 2 risk groups including 36 drivers (18 males and 18 females) performed driving tasks in a simulated environment. The simulated driving behaviors are compared between the 2 risk groups.

Results: The high-risk drivers drove much faster and exhibited larger offsets of the steering wheel than did the low-risk drivers in events without incidents. Additionally, the high-risk drivers used turn signals and horns less frequently than the low-risk drivers.

Conclusions: The present study revealed that the high-risk group differed from the low-risk group in driving behavior in a simulated environment. These results also suggest that simulated driving tasks might be useful tools for the evaluation of drivers’ potential risks.     

Preventing impaired driving using alcohol policy

Considerable progress has been made in the reduction of impaired driving crashes during the last two decades. Much of this progress is attributable to strengthening laws against impaired driving along with vigorous enforcement efforts aimed at deterring impaired driving. In addition, many useful strategies can also be applied that focus on the control of alcohol availability, use, and promotion. Alcohol policies include controls on the price of alcohol, the location, density, and opening hours of sales outlets, controls on the social availability of alcohol, and on the promotion and advertising of alcohol. Enforcement of these policies is an important aspect of their effectiveness. These strategies have been shown to be effective or promising in reducing impaired driving as well as other consequences related to alcohol use and misuse.     

Adolescents' perspectives on distracted driving legislation

Purpose: Distracted driving is a growing global epidemic, with adolescent drivers reporting frequent engagement in distracted driving behaviors. Public health initiatives and legislative efforts designed to decrease the prevalence of these unwanted driving behaviors have demonstrated small, but significant reductions in crash risk. Non-compliance is a known problem among drivers of all ages, but may be especially problematic for novice, adolescent drivers. Using a construct from the Health Belief Model, the relations between demographic factors, perceived threat to safety, and peer influences were investigated with adolescents' support for three types of distracted driving legislation regarding: (a) reading or sending text messages/emails while driving; (b) hand-held cell phone use while driving; and (c) using non-driving-related-in-vehicle (NDIV) technology while driving. Investigating adolescents' perceptions provides an opportunity to understand distracted driving enforcement and legislation. Methods: Three hundred and seventy-nine adolescents aged 15–19 (M = 16.12, SD = 0.56) were recruited from public high schools. Demographics, perceptions, and support regarding distracted driving were assessed using self-report surveys. Statistical analyses included bivariate correlations and adjusted odds ratios to investigate influences of adolescent support for distracted driving legislation. Results:Female adolescents were at 2 times greater odds of supporting a law against texting/emailing while driving compared to male adolescents. Greater perceived threat to safety was associated with all three types of distracted driving legislation (aOR = 1.10, 1.33). Minimal association was found with peer influences. Conclusions: Perceived threat to safety and gender were associated with legislative support in adolescents. Practical application: Interventions and public health campaigns that incorporate elements related to perceived threat may be more successful with female adolescent drivers than male adolescents. Future experimental research will help to determine what factors affect adolescents' perspectives on distracted driving to promote compliance with related legislation.     

An evaluation of Washington's driving while intoxicated law: Effect on drunk driving recidivism

The 1980 Washington driving while intoxicated (DWI) law was evaluated to determine its impact on the subsequent driving behavior of persons convicted of DWI. The major provisions of this law were mandatory jail sentences for conviction of DWI and a change in the definition of DWI. The law made it illegal per se for a person to drive with a blood alcohol level of .10% or more. The law was intended to reduce the drunk driving and accidents of individuals convicted of DWI as well as deter such behavior among the general driving population. The study assessed the deterrence effect of the law on convicted DWI offenders. It was found that individuals convicted under the provisions of this law had higher accident rates and drunk driving recidivism rates than individuals convicted under the previous law. These increases suggest that mandatory jail sentences may fail to deter subsequent acts of drunk driving. It was concluded that alternative legal sanctions for DWI (such as license suspensions or revocations) may be sufficiently stringent to produce both general and specific deterrence of drunk driving.     

Improvement of driver active interventions during automated driving by displaying trajectory pointers—A driving simulator study

Abstract

Objective: The handover of vehicle control from automated to manual operation is a critical aspect of interaction between drivers and automated driving systems (ADS). In some cases, it is possible that the ADS may fail to detect an object. In this event, the driver must be aware of the situation and resume control of the vehicle without assistance from the system. Consequently, the driver must fulfill the following 2 main roles while driving: (1) monitor the vehicle trajectory and surrounding traffic environment and (2) actively take over vehicle control if the driver identifies a potential issue along the trajectory. An effective human–machine interface (HMI) is required that enables the driver to fulfill these roles. This article proposes an HMI that constantly indicates the future position of the vehicle.

Methods: This research used the Toyota Dynamic Driving Simulator to evaluate the effect of the proposed HMI and compares the proposed HMI with an HMI that notifies the driver when the vehicle trajectory changes. A total of 48 test subjects were divided into 2 groups of 24: One group used the HMI that constantly indicated the future position of the vehicle and the other group used the HMI that provided information when the vehicle trajectory changed.

The following instructions were given to the test subjects: (1) to not hold the steering wheel and to allow the vehicle to drive itself, (2) to constantly monitor the surrounding traffic environment because the functions of the ADS are limited, and (3) to take over driving if necessary.

The driving simulator experiments were composed of an initial 10-min acclimatization period and a 10-min evaluation period. Approximately 10?min after the start of the evaluation period, a scenario occurred in which the ADS failed to detect an object on the vehicle trajectory, potentially resulting in a collision if the driver did not actively take over control and manually avoid the object.

Results: The collision avoidance rate of the HMI that constantly indicated the future position of the vehicle was higher than that of the HMI that notified the driver of trajectory changes, χ² = 6.38, P < .05. The steering wheel hands-on and steering override timings were also faster with the proposed HMI (t test; P < .05).

Conclusions: This research confirmed that constantly indicating the position of the vehicle several seconds in the future facilitates active driver intervention when an ADS is in operation.