Laboratory observations on spawning,fecundity and early development of a mesopelagic ostracod,Conchoecia pseudodiscophora,from the Japan Sea

The fate of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon [³H]benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) was examined in two species of scleractinian corals, Favia fragum (Esper) and Montastrea annularis (Ellis and Solander), which were collected in the patch reefs surrounding Alina's Reef (25°23.25N; 80°09.8W) in Biscayne National Park, Florida, USA, in July, 1990. Corals were exposed to initial concentrations of 5 g/l in a simple static system for 25 h. BaP uptake was estimated from the disappearance of BaP from the water. Uptake rates were 6.5±0.7 and 10.8±0.2 g BaP cm^-2h^-1 for F. fragum and M. annularis, respectively, at initial BaP concentrations and were directly proportional to the concentration of BaP in the water. The separation of zooxanthellae from coral tissue revealed that zooxanthellae can accumulate up to 53 and 64% of the total BaP-derived radioactivity present in F. fragum and M. annularis, respectively. Both corals metabolized BaP slowly, as most of the accumulated radioactivity was present as the unmetabolized chemical. However, aqueous and organic-soluble metabolites were found in both the animal and zooxanthellae fractions. Analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) revealed that both species of corals metabolized BaP to various tetrols, triols, dihydrodiols, quinones and phenols, although the pattern of metabolites differed between species. Zooxanthellae contained some of the same Phase I metabolites found in the animal tissue; however, tetrols and triols were absent in extracts from the zooxanthellae. The elimination of BAP from corals was also slow; approximately 38 and 65% of the accumulated radioactivity was still present in F. fragum and M. annularis, respectively, 144 h following the transfer of exposed corals to an uncontaminated flow-through seawater system.     

Luminous bacteria of a monocentrid fish (Monocentris japonicus) and two anomalopid fishes (Photoblepharon palpebratus and Kryptophanaron alfredi): population sizes and growth within the light organs,and rates of release into the seawater

The light organs of monocentrid and anomalopid fishes consist of bacteria-filled tubular invaginations of the epidermis which are connected to the surrounding seawater by ducts. We used the release of bacteria from the light organs to estimate bacterial rates of growth in the light organs. For one monocentrid fish (4 specimens of Monocentris japonicus collected at Jogashima, Japan in 1980) and for two anomalopid fishes (2 specimens each of Photoblepharon palpebratus collected at Sebu, Phillipines in 1981 and Grand Comore Island in 1975 and Kryptophanaron alfredi collected at Parguera, Puerto Rico in 1982) we measured rates of release of bacteria into the surrounding seawater and the bacterial population sizes in the light organs; from this information we calculated doubling times of bacteria in the light organs. In addition, we determined the luminescence of bacteria after their release into the seawater. For M. japonicus, two specimens released 1.1 to 6×10⁶ and 2×10⁷ bacteria h^–1, respectively; the light organs contained about 1.5×10⁸ bacteria. For P. palpebratus, one specimen released 2.2×10⁸ bacteria h^–1; a second specimen had light organs containing 5.2×10⁹ bacteria. For K. alfredi, one specimen released 7×10⁷ bacteria h^–1 and had light organs containing 5.6×10⁸ bacteria; a second specimen released 3.6×10⁷ bacteria h^–1 and had light organs containing 7.3×10⁸ bacteria. Bacterial doubling times in the light organs of these three fishes were variable and ranged from 7.5 to 135 h in M. japonicus and 8 to 23 h in the anomalopids. Bacteria released from M. japonicus into the seawater remained viable, but bacteria from all of the fishes soon ceased to emit light.     

Genotype-dependent fecundity and temporal variation of spawning in hybrid mussel (Mytilus) populations

Mussel samples were collected at 4 to 6 wk intervals throughout 1987 from two hybridMytilus edulis/M. galloprovincialis populations, at Croyde Bay and Whitsand Bay, in southwest England. These were analyzed at two polymorphic loci which are diagnostic for allozyme differences which typifyM. edulis andM. galloprovincialis. Dry mantle weight as a function of shell length was determined for all individuals of each sample. Size-frequency data for the two populations was obtained in September 1987 and March 1988. For all genotypes at both sites, fecundity was a function of shell length, and in both populations the frequency ofM. galloprovincialis alleles was positively correlated with shell length. At both sites, allozyme genotype explained a significant amount of variation in mantle weight either when assessed as a main effect or when assessed as an interaction with shell length or time of collection. At Croyde,M. galloprovincialis mussels had greater estimated fecundity per unit length than theM. edulis mussels. Differences in the timing of spawning activity between theM. edulis and theM. galloprovincialis mussels were inferred, and these differences might act to reduce the amount of interbreeding at Croyde. At Whitsand, a reduced level of variability in the timing of spawning activity and fecundity between the genotypes was observed and explained by a higher degree of genetic mixing. Because theM. galloprovincialis mussels had (1) a greater estimated fecundity at any length, and (2) a greater mean length than theM. edulis mussels, the mean genotypic annual fecundity perM. galloprovincialis mussel was 2.8 times greater than an individualM. edulis mussel at Croyde, and 2.2 times greater than an individualM. edulis mussel at Whitsand. This evidence thatM. galloprovincialis mussels have an advantage in fecundity, and thus perhaps in fertility, taken together with the evidence thatM. galloprovincialis also has a higher viability, indicates directional selection in favour of theM. galloprovincialis phenotype. Because of the observed temporal stability of the population it seems likely that this selection is counterbalanced by a massive imigration ofM. edulis spat from neighbouring populations.     

Laboratory observations on spawning and embryonic development of a blue-ringed octopus

The infratidal zonation of animals in a 35 m deep fjord-like South African estuary is described. The barnacle Balanus amphitrite Darwin and the bivalve Musculus virgiliae Barnard form the uppermost zone and extend to a depth of 9 m. The oyster Crassostrea margaritacea (Lam.) forms a zone between 1 and 3 m depth while the sponge Grantessa ramosa (Haeckel) occurs between 3 and 7 m. The tubiculous polychaete Mercierella enigmatica Fauvel is the only species found below 10 m, and attains a depth of 33 m. In the wet season (summer) the surface salinity dropped to 2 and temperatures rose to 24°C. In the dry season (winter) surface salinity rose to 24 and temperatures dropped to 16°C. Salinity and temperature of deep water (6 to 33 m) were more stable and varied only between 32.5 and 35 and between 19.6° and 20.5°C, respectively. In June, water below 12 m was 50 to 60% saturated with oxygen but this declined to less than 5% saturation in January.     

Optimum swimming pathways of fish spawning migrations in rivers

Fishes that swim upstream in rivers to spawn must navigate complex fluvial velocity fields to arrive at their ultimate locations. One hypothesis with substantial implications is that fish traverse pathways that minimize their energy expenditure during migration. Here we present the methodological and theoretical developments necessary to test this and similar hypotheses. First, a cost function is derived for upstream migration that relates work done by a fish to swimming drag. The energetic cost scales with the cube of a fish's relative velocity integrated along its path. By normalizing to the energy requirements of holding a position in the slowest waters at the path's origin, a cost function is derived that depends only on the physical environment and not on specifics of individual fish. Then, as an example, we demonstrate the analysis of a migration pathway of a telemetrically tracked pallid sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus) in the Missouri River (USA). The actual pathway cost is lower than 10(5) random paths through the surveyed reach and is consistent with the optimization hypothesis. The implication--subject to more extensive validation--is that reproductive success in managed rivers could be increased through manipulation of reservoir releases or channel morphology to increase abundance of lower-cost migration pathways.     

Are puffer fish more toxic in their spawning seasons?

It has been a common belief that all puffer fishes are more toxic in their spawning seasons, perhaps to protect their fertilized eggs. However, the current study of two puffer fishes, Takifugu niphobles (Jordan and Snyder) and Takifugu alboplumbeus (Richardson), collected in Hong Kong waters continuously for over a year and bioassayed for toxicity in terms of mouse units (MU), showed the contrary. Their annual spawning seasons (evident from the enlargement of the gonads and the presence of eggs in the ovary) were found to be from October to February (4 consecutive months) and December to February (2 consecutive months), respectively. In both species, the ovaries were highly toxic (100-1,000 MU/g) only in their non-spawning seasons and they became weakly toxic (10-100 MU/g) in their spawning seasons; unlike the ovaries, liver and intestine, the flesh and the skin did not have marked annual toxicity patterns. Their flesh was basically non-toxic (less than 10 MU/g) throughout the whole year. The testes, which were only developed in the spawning seasons, were also found to be non-toxic.     

Some observations on the relative abundance of biological sound scatters in the North-eastern Atlantic Ocean,with particular reference to apparent fish shoals

In various months of the years between 1960 and 1972, the R.R.S. “Discovery II” and R.R.S. “Discovery” carried out a number of echo-surveys in the North-eastern Atlantic Ocean between Latitudes 12° and 62°N, and from the European and African coasts to a longitude of approximately 29°W. The prime objective was to acquire data on sea-floor topography. In addition, numerous echo-traces of biological scattering present in midwater between depths of approximately 35 and 460 m were obtained. The traces were of variable quality, but were considered suitable for a preliminary evaluation of the scattering mainly as a basis for further investigation. The scattering recorded in daytime was broadly divisible into three types:

1. Diffuse layers, which were probably due to dispersed single fish. These were not analysed further.
2. Very small discrete echoes, mostly derived from single fish and very small shoals. These were mapped to show geographical regions of greater abundance.
3. Larger discrete echoes, most of which were almost certainly given by fish shoals. These were analysed in detail and information obtained on depth distribution, shoal density, geographical distribution and relative abundance. Small and moderate-sized shoals were found to be very numerous in spring and summer in oceanic water to the West and North-west of the British Isles. Large numbers of shoals of various sizes were also observed at various time of the year in the Bay of Biscay and near certain parts of the European and African Continental Shelf, near certain seamounts, and near islands such as the Azores, Madeira, and the Cape Verde Islands. In general, shoals appeared to be relatively sparse in the more southerly temperate and subtropical regions of the open ocean. The depth distribution of shoals in open water varied greatly but, on average, the maximum daytime depth of those in the more southerly area of the survey was slightly greater than that of those in the more northerly area. Shoal size also varied, shoals to the north of Latitude 50°N were on average slightly smaller than those detected in southerly regins. Possible identification of the fish is discussed.

     

Patterns of the electric organ discharge during courtship and spawning in the mormyrid fish,Pollimyrus isidori

Summary Pollimyrus isidori's electric organ discharge (EOD) is of the pulse type. Patterns of EOD intervals were investigated prior to, during and following spawning behaviors as related with overt behaviors, and with the sound production by the nestbuilding male. Prior to the time of reproduction, isolated and socially interacting fish (n=15) showed characteristic discharge interval patterns for resting, swimming, probing, hovering and hiding activities. Males (n=8) and females (n=6) did not differ in their mean EOD repetition rates during resting (11.6±2.5 Hz), nor Short Bursts/min (less than 20 intervals of 8–13 ms). In interacting fish Long Bursts (greater than 20 intervals of 8–13 ms, lasting for more than 300 ms) were observed only during the attack and bite sequence. A pursuing fish displayed a rapid alternation of Long Bursts with Discharge Breaks (300–1000 ms silence) during the chase behavior. Avoidance behavior which followed from several attacks was correlated with a Medium Uniform Rate (8–12 Hz) normally lasting for 20 to 60 s, or a Discharge Arrest (silence greater than 1 s) in the submissive fish. The nocturnal courtship behavior began soon after dark (1900 h). Spawning typically started 2 to 5 h after dark, continuing for 2 to 6 h until about 0200 h. During courtship and spawning the female's brief visits (15–25 s) to the male's territory recurred every 30–60 s. At all other times the female was aggressively excluded from the nest region. Courtship and spawning behaviors are described along with the electrical displays identified from 19 spawnings in three fish pairs (from a total of 37 spawnings in 4 males and 4 females). Just prior to the onset of courtship behavior, with male territorial aggression beginning to decline, females switched from a Medium Sporadic Rate pattern (resting and hiding patterns; 13 Hz) to a Medium Uniform Rate pattern (6–8 Hz) while still in their hiding area. Females continued to display this uniform rate throughout the courship and spawning period, including the courtship and spawning bouts when Discharge Breaks or Arrests also occurred. This persistance distinguishes the courtship pattern from the similar avoidance pattern (see above). The male courtship and spawning EOD pattern was similar to the female's and unique for a territorial male. He switched from a High Sporadic Rate (swimming EOD pattern; about 18 Hz) to a regularized Medium Uniform Rate (about 9 to 11 Hz) only during courtship and spawning bouts, including 1–3 EOD Breaks during Vent-to-Vent coupling (average interval: 272±71 ms, n=37). No sooner had the female left the spawning site than he resumed displaying a High Sporadic Rate. This temporal correlation of reproductive behaviors with electrical displays suggests their instrumental role in mutual acceptance of mates. Males showed their sex-specific type of EOD phase-locking, the Preferred Latency Response, only during the first few hours of entry of a fish in their tank. Two females with EOD waveform features more typical of males also spawned repeatedly; waveform does not appear to be critical. Males stopped their nocturnal sound production for the later part of courtship and the whole spawning period. Except for infrequent attacks on the female between spawning bouts, the male did not resume singing until the end of spawning when all eggs were shed (around 0200 h); from this time on the male sang until dawn. The sequencing of the three acoustic elements (moans, grunts, growls) are described. A catalogue of discharge patterns correlated with overt behaviors (Tables 1, 2), and an integrated summary time table of P. isidori's complex reproductive behavior are presented.     

Some observations on the influence of salinity on growth and photosynthesis inPorphyra umbilicalis

Notwithstanding the great importance of the salinity factor in the marine environment, the knowledge of influence of salinity on growth of marine benthic algae is very limited. Rate of growth (mg, cm²) and O₂ output of the intertidal red algaPorphyra umbilicalis from Helgoland, North Sea, were measured during a 3 week culture in 3 different salinities (1/2-, 1- and 2-concentrated artificial sea water; Table 1). Under hypertonic conditions (2-concentrated sea water) growth rate and photosynthesis rate were depressed, compared to values obtained in normal concentrated sea water. Under hypotonic conditions (1/2-concentrated sea water), growth expressed in mg was the same as in normal concentrated sea water, or higher when expressed in cm³. Rate of O₂ output was almost unaltered in one of the two experiments, lowered in the other. Cell size increased at higher salinity, while swelling of cell walls and intercellular substances as well as the intensity of colouring decreased with salinity. The discrepancies between growth and photosynthesis under hypotonic conditions cannot be completely explained by the observed influences of salinity on morphological structures (cell size, swelling of cell substances). Detailed studies on the time course of photosynthesis and respiration rates, and preparation of a metabolic balance for the algae are necessary.     

Some observations on the interactions of marine protozoa and crude oil residues

Marine protozoa were observed to take up Kuwait crude-oil residues in the laboratory and the field. The results suggest that the ingestion occurs only whilst the organisms are feeding on normal food sources.     

Some direct observations on the ecology and behaviour of the Norway lobster Nephrops norvegicus

A detailed investigation of a small area of sea bed occupied by the Norway lobster Nephrops norvegicus (L.) was carried out by diving and television observations at depths of 30 m in Loch Torridon, Scotland. The density of burrows was 1/2 m², but only a proportion of these were occupied by N. norvegicus. Although about 70% of the larger burrows were occupied by N. norvegicus, giving a density of 1 lobster/8 m², very few juveniles (carapace length less than 30 mm) were found in the area. Many of the small burrows were occupied by the gobiid fish Lesueurigobius friesii (Collett). There was evidence that N. norvegicus frequently change their burrows, and fighting for burrows was observed. N. norvegicus remain within their burrows during the day, emerge around sunset to forage for food during the night, and then return to their burrows at dawn. This, and other aspects of their burrowing behaviour, have a marked effect on the commercial trawl catches of N. norvegicus which show large seasonal and diurnal variations in size and sex composition.     

Laboratory observations on spawning,brood size and egg hatchability of the Antarctic krill Euphausia superba from Prydz Bay,Antarctica

Forty-three female Euphausia superba were collected from three sites in Prydz Bay, Antarctica in January 1985. Most gravid females took 3 to 14 d to spawn after capture and some less mature females released eggs after 21 d. Most females spawned only once; overall mean brood size was 2 809 eggs and mean hatchability for eggs from the premoult females was 69.7%. For seven females spawning a second time, overall mean brood size was 597 eggs. Mean hatchability for second-spawn eggs from five premoult females was 67.1%. Possible origins of the second-spawned eggs were small numbers of matured eggs left in the ovaries after the first spawning or eggs developed from those of peripheral nucleolus and vitellogenic stages. Throughout the 8 wk of observations, there was no apparent development of eggs in females which had released all their eggs at one spawning.     

Exploratory observations on microhabitat selection within the intertidal zone by the Chinese mudskipper fish Periophthalmus cantonensis

The amphibious Chinese mudskipper fish Periophthalmus cantonensis liver in complex, variable, tropical intertidal mangrove forest and mudlfat habitats. Within these macrohabitats, an array of microhabitats are available to this species which spends most of its time out of water. It is subjected to, and tolerates, wide ranges of salinity and temperature. It is primarily diurnally active and uses dark, usually water-filled burrows in the mud as refuges and breeding places. Individuals of P. cantonensis were captured at night from intertidal mudflats of mangrove forests in the northeastern New Territories, Hong Kong in 1971 and 1972. Using choice experiments in the laboratory, we determined behavioural preferences of this fish for five combinations of abiotic environmental variables relevant to its selections of microhabitats. P. cantonensis usually preferred being out of water, resting on damp mud, to being in direct contact with water of any salinity. In salinity-choice experiments it showed no preference for any particular salinity, but avoided exposure to fresh water. Offered choices between various water temperatures it displayed a strong preference for higher temperatures (30° to 35°C), even though these temperatures were close to those known to cause distress or death. In light-dark choice experiments in very shallow water P. cantonensis preferred darkness to light. Experiments combining watertemperature differences with light-dark choices showed that these two factors interact in complex ways. We discuss implications of these results for understanding of behavioural selection of microhabitats by this fish.     

Mate availability accelerates male filial cannibalism in a nest brooding fish: effects of number and fecundity of females

Theoretical models predict that increased mate availability accelerates filial cannibalism by the parental male, but we do not yet fully understand how the various aspects of mate availability contribute to this effect. We examined the effects of two elements of mate availability—female fecundity and sex ratio—on filial cannibalism by the lizard goby, Rhinogobius flumineus, which is a paternal nest brooding fish. We used three types of females (stimulus-females): a single female with slim belly (not ready to spawn), a single gravid female (ready to spawn), and two gravid females. Stimulus-females were housed in a transparent cage and shown to subject males just before and after spawning with a separate female, after which males cared for the brood. A single gravid stimulus-female accelerated filial cannibalism, compared with a control-stimulus consisting of an empty cage, but only during the early care period. In contrast, a single slim-bellied stimulus-female did not accelerate cannibalism. A stimulus of two gravid females accelerated cannibalism to the same degree as a single gravid female stimulus. Our results suggest that in lizard gobies, filial cannibalism by parental males is accelerated by female quality (fecundity) in the early care period, but not by a higher number of available females (sex ratio).     

Some observations on heavy metal concentrations in soils of the Mendip region of north Somerset

Topsoiis in the Mendip Hills of north Somerset are strongly enriched in Pb, Zn and Cd. While much of this enrichment is the result of pollution stemming from previous base metal mining, analyses of soil profile samples reveals that, in several cases, there is considerable enrichment of heavy metals with depth. This, together with relatively high levels of base metals in samples of the limestone and sandstone bedrocks, suggests that some of the enrichment in soil of heavy metals is due to natural processes.     

Population level effects of reduced fecundity in the fish species perch (Perca fluviatilis) and the implications for environmental monitoring

A 40% reduction in relative gonad size in perch (Perca fluviatilis) has been observed over that past two decades at the Swedish national reference site Kvädöfjärden. This biomarker response could be interpreted as a reduction in fecundity and increased risk of local extinction. However, abundance estimates from the same area has not provided any evidence of a reduction in population size. In the present study, a matrix population model was developed to investigate if a reduction in fecundity can be expected to have long term effects on population viability for perch and to evaluate the probability to detect such effects through abundance estimates. The model was parameterized from 17 years of population data from Kvädöfjärden as well as from other studies on perch. The model included density dependence and environmental stochasticity. The results indicated that a reduction in fecundity that is in level with the observed reduction in relative gonad size in Kvädöfjärden will cause a substantial risk for local extinction. The risk that the population will fall below 20% of the carrying capacity within 50 years is 44% when the fecundity is reduced by 40%. However, due to variability in abundance measurements it will take some time before a reduction in gonad size leads to statistically significant effects on the population. If the fecundity is reduced by 40% successively over a 10-year period, the probability to detect this through abundance estimates within 10 years is less than 50%. The results of the present study clearly show that relevant biomarkers have an important role in environmental monitoring as early warning signals, preferably in combination with measurements at higher levels of biological organization.     

Locomotion versus spawning: escape responses during and after spawning in the scallop Argopecten purpuratus

The energetic cost of spawning and the endogenous factors that modulate spawning could modify escape response performance, leading to a conflict between the requirements of two fundamental components of fitness: reproduction and survival. We examined whether spawning changed force production during escape responses by the functionally hermaphroditic scallop, Argopecten purpuratus, and whether the response of smooth (tonic) and striated (phasic) muscles differed. Force production during escape responses by mature scallops was compared before induction of spawning, during spawning and after completion of spawning. Maximum tonic force and the area under the force curve (total force recorded) were diminished during gamete release, whereas phasic force production (maximum and mean force) increased after spawning was completed. The number and frequency of phasic contractions did not change during the spawning process, suggesting that spawning did not limit fuel availability for phasic contractions. The decrease in tonic force during spawning and the increased phasic force production after spawning may reflect changes in monoamine levels during gamete release. Whereas the spawning process modified force production during escape responses, the changes would, if anything, enhance escape performance during an initial encounter between a scallop and a predatory sea star.     

Effects of propylparaben on fecundity and lifespan in Drosophila melanogaster

Parabensare are widely used as preservatives in cosmetics, foods and pharmaceutical products. Although parabens have generally been considered safe, several studies have cautioned that parabens have estrogenic or endocrine-disrupting properties. With the present study, the effects of four concentrations of propylparabens (200, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg L^?1) on fecundity, development and the lifespan of Drosophila melanogaster have been investigated. Decreased daily mean egg production was found in all exposure groups. In addition, the 100 mg L^?1 treatment significantly shortened egg-to-prepupa time and extended flies lifespan, consistent with a significant reduction in malonyldialdehyde (MDA) level and an increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. The 200 mg L^?1 treatment prolonged egg-to-prepupa time and decreased flies lifespan significantly, being consistent with a significant increase in MDA level and reduction in SOD activities.